<p>Liverpool Castle was a castle in Liverpool, England, that stood from the early 13th century to the early 18th century.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>The castle was probably erected in the 1230s, between 1232 and 1235, under the orders of William de Ferrers, 4th Earl of Derby. No records of the castle construction survive, except the licence to fortify de Ferrers received in 1235. Nearby in West Derby, there had long been a castle, which was taken by the Ferrerses in 1232, but by 1296 it lay in ruins. The castle in Liverpool was built to protect King John&#39;s new port, and was sited at the top of modern-day Lord Street, the highest point in the city which overlooks the Pool. This corresponds to present day Derby Square (Queen Victoria Monument), near the city centre.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The castle was built on top of a plateau, which had been specially constructed, and a moat measuring 20 yards (18 m) was cut out of solid rock. The main building of the castle consisted of the gatehouse flanked by two towers at the north-east corner which faced Castle Street; three round towers at the three remaining corners, one being added at a later date than the others, in 1442. Four curtain walls connected the four towers; the northern and southern walls were recessed to allow them to be commanded from the towers. Inside the castle were a hall and chapel, which were connected to the south-western tower, and a brewhouse and bakehouse. There was also a passage which ran under the moat toward the edge of the river. The courtyard was divided by a wall built running from the north wall to the south wall. Underneath the castle walls stood a dovecot, and an orchard ran from the castle to the Pool in the east.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Upon the death of William de Ferrers in 1247, his son William inherited both Liverpool Castle and West Derby Castle. The heir to the title was Robert de Ferrers. He rebelled against King Henry III and was arrested and held in the Tower of London and then Windsor Castle. His lands and title were removed and taken back by the Crown. Henry III presented the land, along with Lancaster to his second son Edmund. Mary de Ferrers, wife of the forfeited earl and niece to the King, was ordered to surrender the castle in July 1266. The lands were then held by Edmund and passed onto his successor Thomas.</p><br>
<p>It was under the administration of Thomas that Liverpool progressed steadily. The earl did not bestow much worth on the borough of Liverpool and in 1315 he granted the castle and the land to Robert de Holland. The creation of the patronage of Robert de Holland caused some unrest among other landowners, and on 25 October in the same year Adam Banastre, Henry de Lea and William de Bradshagh (Bradshaw) banded together (the Banastre Rebellion) and launched an attack on the castle, and were defeated within an hour. This is the only recorded attack on the castle to happen before the English Civil War. Between 1315 and 1323 the borough of Liverpool returned to the hands of the Crown. In 1323 King Edward II visited the town and lodged at the castle from 24 to 30 October. Early in the reign of Edward III the king utilised Liverpool as a port of embarkation in his wars with Scotland and Ireland. In 1327 Edward ordered the constable of the castle to give shelter to men fleeing from the Scots. There was an inquisition into the land at Lancaster in 1367 that stated there is at Liverpull a certain Castle, the foss whereof and the herbage are worth by the year 2s., and there is a dovehouse under the Castle which is worth by the year 6s.8d.</p><br>
<p>Sir Richard Molyneux was appointed constable of the castle in 1440 and the title was made hereditary five years later. In 1442 the castle was strengthened by the addition of a fourth tower in the south-east corner to the cost of £46 13s 10¼d. On 2 October 1559 the castle is stated as being in utter ruin and decay. The Great Tower had a slate roof and it was suggested to be used as storage for the court rolls. It was decided that the castle would undergo repairs costing around £150, otherwaies it were a grate defacement unto the said towne of Litherpole.</p><br>
<p>During the reign of Charles I the castle was seized by Lord Derby. In 1644 Prince Rupert and his men took the castle, which was later taken back by Sir John Moore. Protestant supporters of William of Orange seized the castle in 1689. On 5 March 1704 the burgesses obtained a lease for the castle and its site from the Crown for fifty years. Lord Molyneux disputed this as he still claimed hereditary constableship. This delayed the settlement of the lease until 1726, when the last remaining ruins of the castle were removed. Finally in 1715 an act was passed to demolish the castle and build a church in its place. Construction of St George&#39;s church began on the site of the old castle and the church was consecrated in 1734. By 1825 the church had been pulled down and a new one built in its place. In 1899 the church was demolished and the Victoria Monument was erected in 1902. In 1976 excavation of the south side of Castle Street was conducted before the construction of the Crown Courts building, which was built in the style of a castle.</p><br>
<h2>Replica</h2><br>
<p>In Lever Park, Rivington near Chorley, William Lever built a folly which is a scale replica of Liverpool Castle in ruins. Building started in 1912 and the replica, which was not completed, was based on a conjectural reconstruction of the castle prepared by E. W. Cox in 1892.</p><br>
<p>Mount Aenos or Ainos  is the tallest mountain in the Ioanian island of Cephallonia, Greece, with an elevation of 1,628 m.</p><br>
<p>Most of the mountain range is designated as a National Park area and is covered with Greek fir (Abies Cephalonica) and black pine (Pinus nigra). Pine forests are found between the elevations of 700 to 1200 m. Semi wild ponies inhabit its forest.</p><br>
<p>On clear days, the view includes the NW Peloponnese and Aetolia along with the islands of Zakynthos, Lefkada, and Ithaca.</p><br>
<p>No ski resorts are found on this mountain range, but there are beautiful caves to be seen in the north. A highway passes over the mountain range connecting traffic from southwestern to the eastern part of the island is one of the few roads going into the mountain range. Approximately 3,000 to 4,000 people live on the slopes of Ainos. Multiple television and cell phone relay towers occupy the summit.</p><br>
<h2>Walking Route</h2><br>
<p>The easiest way to get to the summit is to drive along the Mt Ainos road from the North West to the transmitter station. Leave your car here and then continue along the dirt track on foot for about 10 minutes until you reach some steps to the right and a sign post. Go up these steps for another 10 minutes to reach the summit. A concrete post at the summit has a metal container strapped to it, this contains a visitor book.</p><br>
<p>For a more strenuous walk, roughly equivalent to climbing up Ben Nevis, the route described below is well maintained and signposted. Start at Digaleto, on the road from Sami to Poros. Drive, or walk, along the road heading West, signposted to Ainos/Einos. The official walk starts at a quarry, about 1 km out of the village. Walk through the quarry and follow the signs containing a white square on a yellow background (some of these signs are a little rusty and appear to be red, or will have fallen down but the pathway is quite obvious). All the major junctions have a map and most have shaded rest areas. Much of the walk is below the tree line and can be cool even in the summer, there are occasional view points along the route. The climb is 1096 metres and the length is 6.5 km.</p><br>
<p>Mount Ainos in Kefalonia Greece.jpgMount Ainos viewed from the west</p><br>
<p>Ainos National Park, Kefallonia, Greece (4).jpgGreek fir forest at Ainos</p><br>
<p>The Presidential Range is a mountain range located in the White Mountains of the U.S. state of New Hampshire. Containing the highest peaks of the Whites, its most notable summits are named for American presidents, followed by prominent public figures of the 18th and 19th centuries. The Presidential Range is notorious for having some of the worst weather on Earth, mainly because of the unpredictability of high wind speeds and whiteout conditions on the higher summits. Because of the poor weather conditions, the Presidential Range is often used for mountaineering training for those who go on to climb some of the world&#39;s highest mountains, including K2 and Everest.</p><br>
<p>Mt. Washington, long home of the highest winds recorded on the surface of the Earth at 231 mi/h, is the tallest at 6,288 ft, followed by neighboring peaks Mt. Adams at 5,793 ft and Mt. Jefferson at 5,712 ft. The range is almost entirely in Coos County.</p><br>
<h2>Notable summits</h2><br>
<p>The highest mountains in the Presidential Range are named principally for U.S. presidents, with the tallest mountain (Mt. Washington) named for the first president, the second tallest (Mt. Adams) for the second president, and so on. However, due to a surveying error, Mt. Monroe is actually 22 ft taller than Mt. Madison, which is not the correct order of presidents.</p><br>
<p>Among the range&#39;s most notable summits (in sequence from southwest to northeast):</p><br>
<p>* Mount Webster — after Daniel Webster</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Jackson* — after Charles Thomas Jackson (19th-century geologist)</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Pierce* — after Franklin Pierce (formerly Mt. Clinton — after DeWitt Clinton)</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Eisenhower* — after Dwight D. Eisenhower</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Franklin — after Benjamin Franklin</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Monroe* — after James Monroe</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Washington* — after George Washington (a general at time of naming, and only later a president)</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Clay — after Henry Clay (State of New Hampshire changed name to Mt. Reagan after Ronald Reagan; U.S. government still recognizes Clay name)</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Jefferson* — after Thomas Jefferson</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Sam Adams — after Samuel Adams</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Adams* — after John Adams</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Quincy Adams — after John Quincy Adams</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Madison* — after James Madison</p><br>
<p>Mt. Adams has four subsidiary peaks besides its summit that are also commonly recognized by name. Two are listed above (Sam Adams and John Quincy Adams). The third and fourth are:</p><br>
<p>*Mount Abigail Adams (formerly Adams IV)</p><br>
<p>*Adams V</p><br>
<p>The summits marked with an asterisk (*) are included on the peak bagging list of 4,000-foot and higher mountains in New Hampshire; the others are excluded, in some cases because of lesser height and in others because of more technical criteria.</p><br>
<h2>Other summits</h2><br>
<p>Aside from the notable summits, the Presidential Range contains a number of additional named peaks. Several of these peaks, drained on their west faces by the Dry River, are less accessible than the main and most-visited ridge of the range.</p><br>
<p>Subsidiary peaks of Mount Washington:</p><br>
<p>* Ball Crag (6,106 ft)</p><br>
<p>* Nelson Crag (5,620 ft)</p><br>
<p>* Boott Spur (5,500 ft)</p><br>
<p>North from Mount Washington:</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Bowman (3,449 ft) (spur of Mount Jefferson)</p><br>
<p>South from Mount Washington:</p><br>
<p>* Engine Hill (3,100 ft)</p><br>
<p>* Maple Mountain (2,601 ft)</p><br>
<p>* Iron Mountain (2,726 ft)</p><br>
<p>* Montalban Ridge:</p><br>
<p>** Mt. Isolation (4,004 ft)*</p><br>
<p>** Mt. Davis (3,819 ft)</p><br>
<p>** Stairs Mountain (3,463 ft)</p><br>
<p>** Mt. Resolution (3,415 ft)</p><br>
<p>* Bemis Ridge:</p><br>
<p>** Mt. Crawford (3,119 ft)</p><br>
<p>** Mt. Hope (2,505 ft)</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Parker (3,004 ft)</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Langdon (2,390 ft)</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Pickering (1,945 ft) (family name of first president of Appalachian Mountain Club)</p><br>
<p>* Mt. Stanton (1,716 ft)</p><br>
<p>The summits marked with an asterisk (*) are included on the peak-bagging list of 4,000-foot and higher mountains in New Hampshire; the others are excluded, in some cases because of lesser height and in others because of more technical criteria.</p><br>
<h2>Watersheds</h2><br>
<p>The Presidentials separate drainage via the Saco and Androscoggin rivers into the Atlantic Ocean on the coast of Maine, from drainage into the Israel and Ammonoosuc rivers, thence into the Connecticut River, and thence into Long Island Sound.</p><br>
<h2>Presidential Traverse</h2><br>
<p>The so-called Presidential Traverse is a hike that traverses each major summit along the 19 mi of the Presidential ridge. The traverse encompasses over 8,500 ft in elevation gain. It can be done in a single day in summer, but during winter it is generally a two- to four-day venture. The traverse is considered strenuous.</p><br>
<p>Amrum  is one of the North Frisian Islands on the German North Sea coast, south of Sylt and west of Föhr. It is part of the Nordfriesland district in the federal state of Schleswig-Holstein and has appromixately 2,300 inhabitants.</p><br>
<p>The island is made up of a sandy core of geestland and features an extended beach all along its west coast, facing the open North Sea. The east coast instead borders to mud flats and tidal creeks of the Wadden Sea. Sand dunes are a characteristical part of Amrums landscape, resulting in a vegetation that is largely made up of heath and shrubs. The islands only forest was planted in 1948. Amrum is a refuge for many species of birds and a number of marine mammals like grey seal or harbour porpoise.</p><br>
<p>Settlements on Amrum have been traced back to the Neolithic when the area was still a part of the mainland of the Jutland peninsula. During the Middle Ages, Frisian settlers arrived at Amrum and engaged in salt making and seafaring. A part of the modern population still speaks Öömrang, a dialect of the North Frisian language, and Frisian traditions are kept alive.</p><br>
<p>With the island hosting many endangered species of plants and animals, its soil being largely unfavourable for agriculture and as a popular seaside resort in general, Amrum&#39;s population today almost exclusively lives from the tourism industry.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Amrums area measures 20,4 km, making it the tenth-largest island of Germany (excluding Usedom which is partly Polish territory). Adding the large Kniepsand beach on the Western shore to the surface area results in a total area of c. 30 km. Amrums surface area has however been subject to constant change due to land loss and gain caused by the sea. During the 19th century, a 20th part of the area recorded in the beginning of the century had been lost, but in 1913, a net gain was again recorded at the Kniepsand.</p><br>
<p>Amrum is one of three isles with a geestland core in Nordfriesland. This sandy core is made up of glacial deposites from the Saalian glacial period. that run all along the island for about 12 km. The maximal width of this area amounts to more than a kilometre. Amrums tallest dune near Norddorf is called a Siatler (the settling dune); it reaches 32 m of height. Northward, the dune area extends into a small peninsula called Odde. In the south of Amrum, the newest settlement, Wittdün, is located. West of the dunes, the entire shore of Amrum is made up of the Kniepsand beach; it counts among northern Europes largest sand beaches. North of Norddorf there is some marshland, another small marsh area can be found between Süddorf and Steenodde. Both of them are protected from the sea by dikes. During low tide it is possible to reach the neighbouring island of Föhr by mudflat hiking.</p><br>
<p>Amrum&#39;s population amounts to about 2,300 and the island is divided into three municipalities: Norddorf, Nebel and Wittdün. They adhere to the Amt Föhr-Amrum.</p><br>
<h3>Villages</h3><br>
<p>The northernmost settlement is the seaside resort of Norddorf with a decoy pond and a sector light. Amrums largest village, Nebel, is located near the eastern coastline. Notable sights there include the church of St. Clement with its "talking gravestones", the Öömrang Hüs - a museum of local history, a wind mill and the Cemetery of the Homeless. Süddorf, today a district of Nebel, is the islands oldest hamlet. The Amrum Lighthouse is located there. Steenodde, also a neighbourhood of Nebel, had long been Amrums only port until Wittdün, founded 1890, had taken over as the islands major ferry terminal. Of the three municipalities, Wittdün is most clearly influenced by tourism.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The oldest traces of settlements in the area date back to the Neolithic with a number of dolmens among them. Also many tomb sites from the Bronze and Iron Ages have been preserved. In the dunes west of the decoy pond, the remainders of an Iron Age hamlet have been found. It is unknown whether the Ambrones, who together with the Cimbri and Teutones threatened Rome around 100 BC, stemmed from this island which back then was still connected to the mainland by a land bridge. In the early Middle Ages the island was colonised by the Frisians. The oldest known record of Amrum island has been found in the Danish Census Book of King Valdemar II of Denmark from 1231.</p><br>
<p>Next to salt making, agriculture, fishery and whaling, merchant shipping was one of the main sources of income for a long time. Hark Olufs, a sailor from Süddorf who had been enslaved by Algerians in 1724, advanced to the rank of a General until he was allowed to return to his native island in 1736. During the late 19th century, tourism became a rapidly emerging business on Amrum and effectively changed the island&#39;s economical structures.</p><br>
<p>During the Middle Ages, Amrum as well as all of North Frisia proper belonged to the so-called Uthlande, the Outer Lands, which only successively became parts of the Danish realm or the Duchy of Schleswig. After the conflicts between the Danish kings and the counts of Schauenburg about the rule over Schleswig, Amrum and western Föhr became an enclave of Denmark and contrary to neighbouring areas, it was not any longer a part of the Duchy of Schleswig. This state endured until 1864, when Denmark lost Schleswig to Prussia after the Second Schleswig War. For a brief period after that war Amrum was ruled together by Prussia and Austria, yet in 1867 the island came under Prussian rule and was made a part of the province of Schleswig-Holstein. At first, Amrum formed a municipality within the district of Tondern. In 1920, the Schleswig Plebiscites resulted in a clear majority vote for Amrum staying with Germany, while Tondern fell back to Denmark. Until 1972, Amrum belonged to the Südtondern district which then merged into the newly created district of Nordfriesland.</p><br>
<p>During the 19th century, Amrum still had a considerably lower population than today. Church records from 1821 to 1833 show an average population of 587, a census in 1860 noted 642 inhabitants, and in 1871, the population had dropped to 571. Among other factors, the decrease owed to the fact that large parts of Amrum&#39;s population had emigrated — mainly to the United States. Today, more people with ancestors from Amrum live in the United States than there are on Amrum proper, and the connections between Amrum and the USA are still being cultivated.</p><br>
<p>Eventually, tourism began only to flourish on the island when a seaside resort was established in Wittdün in 1890, which also led to a rapid increase in population.</p><br>
<p>On 29 October 1998, the cargo ship Pallas ran aground off Amrum, causing a severe oil spill in the region.</p><br>
<h2>Language and culture</h2><br>
<p>The main language on Amrum is German. The North Frisian language in the Öömrang dialect is spoken by roughly a third of the population. Those 800 Amrumers are all multilingual. Due to the isolated location of the islands the North Frisian dialects developed so differently, that Öömrang can be understood by people from Föhr, yet is hardly recognisable for those from Sylt or mainland Nordfriesland. Many Amrumers moreover speak Low German, since it had been the language of the coastal sailors. Only a few people speak the Danish language.</p><br>
<p>Amrum&#39;s national costume for girls and women is coloured black and white and is amply decorated with silver ornaments. It is mostly worn on confirmation services or at touristical events.</p><br>
<p>There are two peculiar traditions on Amrum. On February 21 the Biakendai is celebrated, where a great bonfire is lit to dispel winter. On the occasion people blacken each others faces with soot. The festival originates from the old liturgical holiday of Cathedra Petri, which was originally celebrated on February 22. The custom is also popular in other North Frisian municipalities. On New Years Eve the Hulken takes place, where groups of mostly young people dress up in costumes and walk from house to house to let others guess their true identity (similar to Halloween). Depending on their age, they are either treated with sweets or alcoholic drinks.</p><br>
<h2>Economy</h2><br>
<p>Amrum&#39;s main branch of economy is tourism. In 2007 the island could provide 12,000 beds. In 2008 approximately 135,000 tourists and 1.3 million lodgings were registered.</p><br>
<p>Agriculture is also being practised on Amrum and the port hosts a single fisherman.</p><br>
<h3>Media</h3><br>
<p>The local newspaper is called Der Insel-Bote (The Island Courier), and published by the Schleswig-Holsteinischer Zeitungsverlag. It is the common paper for both Föhr and Amrum.</p><br>
<p>Moreover, Amrum was the set for many German cinematic and TV films, e.g. Tod auf Amrum (1998) or Sommer (2008).</p><br>
<h2>Traffic</h2><br>
<p>The isle is connected to Föhr and to the mainland harbour of Dagebüll on the one hand and to the Halligen and the mainland terminal of Schlüttsiel on the other hand by two ferry routes. During the summer season, a fast passenger boat offers services between the ports of Hörnum on Sylt, the Halligen Hooge and Langeneß and the harbour of Strucklahnungshörn on Nordstrand. Amrum&#39;s terminal is located at Wittdün, the ferries are operated by Wyker Dampfschiffs-Reederei GmbH (W.D.R.). Most tourists will reach Amrum via Dagebüll. From there, a ferry will need 90 minutes to reach the island on a straight route, the more common routes with a stop at Wyk auf Föhr need 120 minutes of time.</p><br>
<p>On the island, the bicycle is the main means of transport next to cars; compared to other areas of Germany, Amrum provides an excellent network of bicycle routes. Numerous rental services may provide tourists with bicycles. A bus service connects Norddorf, Nebel and Wittdün on an hourly schedule (every 30 minutes even during the summer season). Like the ferries, the bus service is operated by W.D.R. A less common form of transport is mudflat hiking between Amrum and Föhr.</p><br>
<p>From 1893 to 1939, a railway service was operated on Amrum. There is no airstrip on the island, because any plans to establish one have so far vehemently been opposed.</p><br>
<h2>Flora and fauna</h2><br>
<p>Plants and wild animals on Amrum are marked by the proximity to the sea, but some also distinguish themselves by extreme rarity and a high ecological value worth of protection. This fact was acknowledged by the establishment of two nature reserves and Amrum&#39;s proximity to the Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea National Park.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>Amrums vegetation is determined by the sea and by the different types of landscapes on the island, most of which are low in nutrients. In parts of the dune belt and on the Kniepsand marram grass or sea wormwood grow, as well as numerous other sand-loving plants like sheeps bit which will bloom in sheltered areas between the dunes. Also some stunted pines, bent by the sea wind, and Salix repens, the creeping willow can be found there. Until the 1970s, the rare sea holly could still be seen in the dunes.</p><br>
<p>East of there are heaths and conifer or mixed forests. In some dune slacks, peat bogs can be found which occasionally host the carnivorous plant common sundew. The once abundant marsh gentian vanished during the 1990s.</p><br>
<p>The Amrum forest was mainly planted in 1948 on an area of heath. Until then only a few forested regions could be found around the decoy ponds. With 180 hectares, Amrum has the largest ratio of forested land of all Germany&#39;s North Sea islands. Mainly pines, firs and birches can be found here. Meanwhile, the forest has largely lost its artificial nature. So one will encounter numerous plants on all levels and many species of fungi. The "geestland", east of the forest, is mostly used for farming. Its grassland grows plants such as Harebell (Campanula rotundifolia), Sea Thrift (Armeria maritima) and Carthusian Pink (Dianthus carthusianorum) and several species of hawkweed.</p><br>
<p>In the small marshlands, some sedges and the ragged robin may be seen. Here is the most nutritious soil on Amrum. Even the soil of Amrum&#39;s gardens is so low in nutrients that only few sorts of plants, e.g. hollyhock, will grow there without fertilising.</p><br>
<p>On the salt marshes along the eastern shore of Amrum, many salt tolerant species can be found. Pioneer plants such as Salicornia europaea and alkali grasses, grow on and stabilize the mud flats.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>Like the vegetation, Amrums wild beasts are determined by the islands location within the North Sea. Thus there are only a few species of wild mammals on Amrum, like hare, mice, hedgehogs and bats. In the 12th century coneys were introduced as game. Still today they populate the island. A few years ago a pregnant vixen was set free on Amrum. She and her offspring caused severe damage to the islands fauna, but meanwhile they have been hunted down. In the sea and on the sand bars off Amrum, thus within the National Park, harbour seals, grey seals and harbour porpoises have their habitat. Occasionally in December and January young grey seals are washed ashore on Amrums beaches due to storm surges and are thereafter nursed by the adults. In January 2010 the seal shelter station at Friedrichskoog announced that more and more female grey seals were "moving away from less favourable birth sites near Amrum and Sylt to Heligoland."</p><br>
<p>The realm of birds is particularly plentiful. Amrum counts among the most important hatching areas for seabirds in Germany. It is the only remaining hatching area for the Eurasian curlew in the Wadden Sea, Additionally vast swarms of migratory birds will rest on Amrum during the season, e.g. red knot, brent goose or sanderling, all of whom are able to find sufficient food along the coasts of Amrum. Moreover, a number of songbirds can be found and pheasants which were equally introduced as game are common.</p><br>
<p>Lizards and amphibians, such as moor frog, natterjack toad and smooth newt are other examples of land vertebrata.</p><br>
<p>In the sea surrounding Amrum numerous fish species typical of the North Sea can be found, like plaice and atlantic herring. A 1940 report mentioned several worms like Nematodes, Archiannelida, Oligochaeta and Turbellaria, crustaceans like ostracods, and ciliate protozoans in the sands of the Kniepsand beach. Since the 1980s, the abundance of harbour porpoises in the sea off Amrum and Sylt has been increasing and a protected marine area was created in 1999 to provide shelter for them.</p><br>
<p>The number of other marine species is equally great, the hermit crab, the common whelk and the lugworm are all among them. Of them, mainly the sand shrimps are commercially used by "harvesting" them from the seabed with cutters. The shrimps are then wrongly marketed as "crabs" (Krabben).</p><br>
<p>is a tidal island in the Wadden Sea on the German North Sea coast, with a population of 32. Neuwerk is located northwest of Cuxhaven, between the Weser and Elbe estuaries. The distance to the centre of Hamburg is about. Archaic English names for the island are New Werk and Newark.</p><br>
<p>Administratively, Neuwerk forms a homonymous quarter of the city and state of Hamburg, Germany, and is part of the borough Hamburg-Mitte. This quarter includes the islands of Scharhörn and Nigehörn, which are bird sanctuaries and closed to the public. All three islands and the Wadden Sea around them form the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park.</p><br>
<p>Dikes encircle the island, which is about 3 km&sup2, and one can walk around it in an hour. Salt marshes (the "Outland"), lie outside the dikes and provide a hatchery for birds such as oystercatchers, scrays, sandwich terns, black-headed gulls, herring gulls, and others. During the summer farmers may pasture cows and horses on the northern Outland.</p><br>
<p>At low tide one can reach the island on foot or on a Wattwagen, a horse-drawn mud flat coach, from Cuxhaven. A row of poles on the mud flats marks the way. The path includes some elevated cages. These are rescue pods. Should high tide catch a walker far from shore, the walker can climb into the pod and wait for the tide to recede, or trigger a flare. Triggering the flare summons a rescue boat; rescue involves a fee and non-negligible fine.</p><br>
<p>During the summer the vessel MS Flipper makes a daily trip at high tide from the "Alte Liebe" port in Cuxhaven to the island. Because departure times depend on the tides, the times are variable. The trip takes about an hour and a half one-way.</p><br>
<p>One may, for a small fee, visit and ascend the lighthouse to a viewing platform. This provides a view of the coast and the entire island. There is a small hotel with seven guest rooms inside the lighthouse, and a hostel in a building next to the tower. Near the lighthouse there is the "graveyard of the nameless". This is a resting place for the dead bodies that in past years washed ashore. Today, bodies washed ashore are transferred to the continent.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Because the Elbe was vital to Hamburg, a member of the Hanseatic League, the city&#39;s merchants with those from Bremen and Stade obtained the permission (a deed of 24 April 1286) from Albert II, Duke of Saxony and his minor nephews Albert III, Eric I and John II, altogether co-ruling feudal lords of the Land of Hadeln of which Neuwerk formed a part then, to maintain a permanent fire on a mud flat island, then named O or Nige O, in the mouth of the Elbe.</p><br>
<p>On 1 November 1299 Albert III and John II allowed the Hamburg and other seafaring merchants to build a fortified tower, named the new work (Neuwerk). Right after work commenced on a 35 m watchtower that could act as a daymark; the tower was completed in 1310. After its completion, an alderman and ten men-at-arms seized the tower. The oldest existing document that mentions Neuwerk is a Frisian contract of 1316. This document uses the island&#39;s old name of Nige O.</p><br>
<p>The current tower dates to 1367, 1369, or 1377 (accounts vary), built after a fire destroyed its wooden predecessor. The tower is Hamburgs oldest existing building as well as the last remainder of Hamburgs fortifications.</p><br>
<p>In 1648 the tower received a beacon fire that was lit at night. The tower was converted into a lighthouse in 1814. Still, the island was the site of numerous shipwrecks.</p><br>
<p>During World War I, a shell destroyed the beacon and its signalling apparatus. On 3 September 1915 lightning struck the Zeppelin LZ 40 (L 10), causing it to crash into the North Sea near Neuwerk, with the loss of the entire 20-man crew.</p><br>
<p>Due to the Greater Hamburg Law Neuwerk became part of Prussia in 1937, and thus after World War II it became part of the new state of Lower Saxony.</p><br>
<p>In 1946 an 18 kW wind turbine, 15 m in diameter, installed to economize on diesel fuel, helped power the lighthouse and residences on the island. This installation ran for around 20 years before a submarine cable to the mainland replaced it.</p><br>
<p>In 1969 Hamburg waived older rights on harbour estate in Cuxhaven in favour of Neuwerk and Scharhörn.</p><br>
<h2>Shipwrecks</h2><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>On 31 December 2007, Neuwerk quarter had 39 inhabitants, 26 female and 13 males. 11 were resident aliens.</p><br>
<p>The White Mountains of California and Nevada are a triangular fault-block mountain range facing the Sierra Nevada across the upper Owens Valley. They extend for approximately 60 mi as a greatly elevated plateau about 20 mi wide on the south, narrowing to a point at the north, with elevations generally increasing south to north. The range&#39;s broad southern end is near the community of Big Pine, where Westgard Pass and Deep Springs Valley separate it from the Inyo Mountains. The narrow northern end is at Montgomery Pass, where USA Route 6 crosses. The Fish Lake Valley lies east of the range; the southeast part of the mountains are separated from the Silver Peak Range by block faulting across the Furnace Creek Fault Zone, forming a feeder valley to Fish Lake Valley. The range lies within the eastern section of the Inyo National Forest.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>Ecologically, the White Mountains are like the other ranges in the Basin and Range Province; they are dry, but the upper slopes from 9200 to 11500 ft hold open subalpine forests of Great Basin bristlecone pine on permeable dolomite and certain granite substrates and limber pine on less permeable rocky substrates. Middle slopes from 6500 to 8200 ft have somewhat denser stands of piñon pine and Utah juniper. These upper and lower conifer zones are often separated by a zone of mountain mahogany brush. Various subspecies of sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) extend from surrounding valleys to the lower alpine zone.</p><br>
<p>A bristlecone pine in the southern part of the range is the oldest known living tree in the world, at 5063 years old. Pine nuts from piñon pine stands were harvested as a winter staple food by Paiute Indians whose descendants still live in adjacent valleys.</p><br>
<p>The White Mountains also have small remnant groves of lodgepole pine, Jeffrey pine, ponderosa pine, Sierra juniper and aspen including an unusual dwarf variety. These species are common in the nearby and wetter Sierra Nevada range west of the Owens Valley and must have been more widespread in the White Mountains until Holocene droughts extirpated them in most of this drier range. A number of plant species are endemic to the White Mountains, including the White Mountains horkelia, Horkelia hispidula.</p><br>
<p>Fauna include two herds of bighorn sheep, mule deer, marmots and feral horses. Permanent streams have no native fish, but there are naturalized populations of trout including rare Paiute cutthroat trout which is protected from angling. Birds include Clark&#39;s nutcracker and other Corvidae which eat and cache pine nuts.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Cattle from ranches in surrounding valleys are still grazed under permit as high as the alpine zone. Historically sheep were also grazed in large numbers, introducing diseases from which the native Bighorn Sheep populations are still slowly recovering. Before European colonization of surrounding valleys in the mid 19th century, Paiute Indians occupied summer hunting camps up to about 13,100 ft, leaving ruins of archeological interest.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The highest point in the range is White Mountain Peak, which at 14,252 ft is the third-highest summit in California. This peak is actually an extinct volcano rising about 1,600 ft above the plateau surface. The summit is composed of Mesozoic metavolcanic rock – lava lifted and melted by rising granite. The volcano itself is long since gone.</p><br>
<p>The White Mountains are the highest range completely inside the Great Basin, although the adjacent Sierra Nevada Range along the basin&#39;s western edge has two higher summits.</p><br>
<p>The entire range is within the Inyo National Forest.</p><br>
<h2>Hiking</h2><br>
<p>A four-wheel drive road reaches the summit of White Mountain Peak from the south to service the summit laboratory of the White Mountain Research Station. The road is normally gated seven miles from the summit at an elevation of 11,680 ft, making this California&#39;s easiest 14,000 ft summit.</p><br>
<p>North of White Mountain Peak, two sharp arêtes alternate along the crest with the broad "whalebacks" plateau of Pellisier Flats with about six more summits over 13,000 ft. Pellisier Flats is a wide sloping bench at the 13000 foot level with rocky fields and short alpine vegetation. The bench includes Mt. Hogue at 12,743 ft. and further north Mt. Dubois at 13,559 ft., the high point on the plateau. Pellisier Flats is the broad spine of the White Mountains.</p><br>
<p>The crest crosses the California–Nevada state line just south of a final high summit Boundary Peak 13,147 ft, Nevada&#39;s high point. Boundary Peak is the "prow" of the triangular fault block. It has views directly down into valleys to the west, north and east that are hidden by the increasing width of the high plateau to the south. North of Boundary Peak the range rapidly loses altitude and ends at Montgomery Pass.</p><br>
<p>The west face of the White Mountains rises steeply out of Owens Valley. Climbing to any summit from this direction is a scramble with about 8,000 ft elevation gain. Eastern slopes are somewhat gentler and have numerous cirques left by Pleistocene glaciers and even a few snowfields persisting through most summers. Most of these cirques are entered or approached by jeep roads and offer scenic yet non-technical routes to the crest.</p><br>
<p>Lindos  is an archaeological site, a town and a former municipality on the island of Rhodes, in the Dodecanese, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Rhodes, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 178.900 km. It lies on the east coast of the island. It is about 50 km south of the town of Rhodes and its fine beaches make it a popular tourist and holiday destination. Lindos is situated in a large bay and faces the fishing village and small resort of Charaki.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<h3>Climate</h3><br>
<p>Lindos is the warmest place in Greece and has 21.4 °C average temperature according to National Observatory of Athens. Also the Rhodes island is the sunniest place in Greece.</p><br>
<p>www.noa.gr/</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Lindos was founded by the Dorians led by the king Tlepolemus of Rhodes, who arrived in about the 10th century BC. It was one of six Dorian cities in the area known as the Dorian Hexapolis. The eastern location of Rhodes made it a natural meeting place between the Greeks and the Phoenicians, and by the 8th century Lindos was a major trading centre. In the 6th century it was ruled by Cleobulus, one of the Seven Sages of Greece. The importance of Lindos declined after the foundation of the city of Rhodes in the late 5th century.</p><br>
<p>In classical times the acropolis of Lindos was dominated by the massive temple of Athena Lindia, which attained its final form in around 300 BC. In Hellenistic and Roman times the temple precinct grew as more buildings were added. In early medieval times these buildings fell into disuse, and in the 14th century they were partly overlaid by a massive fortress built on the acropolis by the Knights of St John to defend the island against the Ottomans.</p><br>
<h2>Acropolis</h2><br>
<p>Above the modern town rises the acropolis of Lindos, a natural citadel which was fortified successively by the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Knights of St John and the Ottomans. This makes the site difficult to excavate and interpret archaeologically. The acropolis has views of the surrounding harbours and coastline.</p><br>
<p>On the acropolis of Lindos today parts of the following buildings may still be seen:</p><br>
<p>The Doric Temple of Athena Lindia, dating from about 300 BC, built on the site of an earlier temple. Inside the temple is the table of offerings and the base of the cult statue of Athena.</p><br>
<p>The Propylaea of the Sanctuary, also dating from the 4th century BC. A monumental staircase leads to a D-shaped stoa and a wall with five door openings.</p><br>
<p>The Hellenistic stoa with lateral projecting wings, dating from about 200 BC. The stoa was 87 metres long and consisted of 42 columns.</p><br>
<p>The well-known relief of a Rhodian trireme (warship) cut into the rock at the foot of the steps leading to the acropolis. On the bow stood a statue of General Hagesander, the work of the sculptor Pythokritos. The relief dates from about 180 BC.</p><br>
<p>The Hellenistic staircase (2nd century BC) leading to the main archaeological area of the acropolis.</p><br>
<p>Remains of a Roman temple, possibly dedicated to the Emperor Diocletian and dating from about 300 AD.</p><br>
<p>The Acropolis is surrounded by a Hellenistic wall contemporary with the Propylaea and the stairway leading to the entrance to the site. A Roman inscription says that the wall and square towers were repaired at the expense of P Aelius Hagetor, the priest of Athena in the 2nd century AD.</p><br>
<p>The Castle of the Knights of St John, built some time before 1317 on the foundations of older Byzantine fortifications. The walls and towers follow the natural conformation of the cliff. A pentagonal tower on the south side commanded the harbour, the settlement and the road from the south of the island. There was a large round tower on the east facing the sea and two more, one round and the other on a corner, on the northeast side of the enceinte. Today one of the towers at the southwest corner and one to the west survive.</p><br>
<p>The Greek Orthodox Church of St John, dating from the 13th or 14th century and built on the ruins of a previous church, which may have been built as early as the 6th century.</p><br>
<p>Some scenes of the well-known film, The Guns of Navarone, were filmed here.</p><br>
<h2>Gallery (Acropolis)</h2><br>
<h2>Excavations</h2><br>
<p>Excavations were carried out at Lindos in the years 1900 to 1914 by the Carlsberg Institute of Denmark, directed by K.F. Kinch and Christian Blinkenberg. The acropolis site was excavated down to bedrock and the foundations of all the buildings were uncovered.</p><br>
<p>During the Italian occupation of the island (1912–1945) major restoration work was carried out on the Lindos acropolis, but it was poorly done and was harmful to the historic record. The north-east side of the Temple of Athena was restored. The monumental staircase to the propylaea was rebuilt and many of the columns of the Hellenistic stoa were re-erected. Large surfaces were covered with concrete. Bases and inscribed blocks were taken from their locations and placed along the restored walls.</p><br>
<p>Judged by modern standards, this work took insufficient note of the evidence available from the excavations and in its methods did damage to the remains themselves. In recent years Greek and international archaeologists under the supervision of the Greek Ministry of Culture have been working to restore and protect the ancient buildings on the site.</p><br>
<h2>Gallery (town)</h2><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Chares of Lindos, sculptor, constructed the Colossus of Rhodes</p><br>
<p>Cleobulus of Lindos</p><br>
<p>Patriarch Joannicius II of Constantinople</p><br>
<p>Ioannis Zigdis (1913–1997), politician and economist</p><br>
<p>Lake Albert, also Albert Nyanza and formerly Lake Mobutu Sese Seko, is a lake located in Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It is one of the African Great Lakes. Lake Albert is Africas seventh-largest lake, and the worlds twenty-seventh largest lake by volume.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Lake Albert is located in the center of the continent, on the border between Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Lake Albert is the northernmost of the chain of lakes in the Albertine Rift, the western branch of the East African Rift.</p><br>
<p>It is about 160 km (100 mi) long and 30 km (19 mi) wide, with a maximum depth of 51 m (168 ft), and a surface elevation of 619 m (2,030 ft) above sea level.</p><br>
<p>Lake Albert is part of the complicated system of the upper Nile. Its main sources are the Victoria Nile, ultimately coming from Lake Victoria to the southeast, and the Semliki River, which issues from Lake Edward to the southwest. The water of the Victoria Nile is much less saline than that of Lake Albert. Its outlet, at the northernmost tip of the lake, is the Albert Nile, which becomes known as the Mountain Nile when it enters South Sudan.</p><br>
<p>At the southern end of the lake, where the Semliki comes in, there are swamps. Farther south looms the Ruwenzori Range, while a range of hills called the Blue Mountains tower over the northwestern shore. The few settlements along the shore include Butiaba and Pakwach.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1864, the explorers Samuel Baker and Sass Flóra found the lake and named it after the recently deceased Prince Albert, consort of Queen Victoria. In the 20th century, Congolese president Mobutu Sese Seko temporarily named the lake after himself.</p><br>
<p>European colonialists operated shipping on the lake. The British planned shipping on Lake Albert as part of a network of railway, river steamer and lake steamer services linking British interests in Egypt, east Africa and southern Africa. The John I. Thornycroft & Company shipyard at Woolston, Hampshire built the cargo and passenger ship for this purpose in 1930. She was named after the British Army officer Robert Thorne Coryndon, who was governor of Uganda 1918-22. Winston Churchill described the ship as "the best library afloat" and Ernest Hemingway called her "magnificence on water". or sank in 1964. She remains unsalvaged and partly submerged in the lake.</p><br>
<p>Heritage Oil and Tullow Oil have announced major oil finds in the Lake Albert basin, with estimates that the multi-billion barrel field will prove to be the largest onshore field found in sub-saharan Africa for more than twenty years.</p><br>
<p>In March 2014, a boat carrying Congolese refugees capsized in Lake Albert, killing more than 250 people.</p><br>
<p>On 26 December 2016, a boat carrying 45 members and fans of a local village football team capsized in Lake Albert killing at least 30 people.</p><br>
<p>Baker-Lake Albert-1861.jpgSir Samuel exploring the lake</p><br>
<p>Rivers and lakes of Uganda.pngRivers and lakes of Uganda</p><br>
<p>Early Ferry, Uganda (15198353996).jpgFerry</p><br>
<p>Lake Albert Channel, Uganda (15192094327).jpgChannel</p><br>
<p>Albert Lake (7068054469).jpgGiraffe by the lake</p><br>
<p>Plitvice Lakes National Park  is one of the oldest and the largest national park in Croatia. In 1979, Plitvice Lakes National Park was added to the UNESCO World Heritage register.</p><br>
<p>The national park was founded in 1949 and is situated in the mountainous karst area of central Croatia, at the border to Bosnia and Herzegovina. The important north-south road connection, which passes through the national park area, connects the Croatian inland with the Adriatic coastal region.</p><br>
<p>The protected area extends over 296.85 km². About 90% of this area is part of Lika-Senj County, while the remaining 10% is part of Karlovac County.</p><br>
<p>Each year, more than 1 million visitors are recorded. Entrance is subject to variable charges, up to 180 kuna or around €24 per adult in peak season.</p><br>
<h2>Features</h2><br>
<p>The national park is world-famous for its lakes arranged in cascades. Currently, 16 lakes can be seen from the surface. These lakes are a result of the confluence of several small rivers and subterranean karst rivers. The lakes are all interconnected and follow the water flow. They are separated by natural dams of travertine, which is deposited by the action of moss, algae, and bacteria. The particularly sensitive travertine barriers are the result of an interplay between water, air and plants. The encrusted plants and bacteria accumulate on top of each other, forming travertine barriers which grow at the rate of about 1 cm per year.</p><br>
<p>The sixteen lakes are separated into an upper and lower cluster formed by runoff from the mountains, descending from an altitude of 636 to 503 m over a distance of some eight km, aligned in a south-north direction. The lakes collectively cover an area of about two square kilometres (2 km&sup2;), with the water exiting from the lowest lake forming the Korana River.</p><br>
<p>The lakes are renowned for their distinctive colors, ranging from azure to green, grey or blue. The colors change constantly depending on the quantity of minerals or organisms in the water and the angle of sunlight.</p><br>
<p>Through different climatic influences and the large difference in elevation within the protected area, a multifaceted flora and fauna has been created. The national park area is home to many endemic species. Those species that prevailed at the lakes before the arrival of man still exist. (Citation needed)</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name Plitvice was first mentioned in a written document in 1777 by Dominik Vukasović, the priest of Otočac. This name was designated due to natural phenomena that have created the lakes. Nature formed shallow basins (Croatian pličina or plitvak, plitko means shallow), which have been filled with water. For centuries, water has changed the limestone and thus the landscape of this area. The emerging travertine barriers decelerated and retained the flowing water. These dams are continuously growing in height.</p><br>
<p>Some scientists refer to the river Plitvica as origin of the name. This little river flows into the Plitvice Lakes at the lower and final part of the lakes. A nearby village bears the same name. The water masses of the Plitvice Lakes continue as Korana river in northern direction.</p><br>
<p>The national park became famous during the 1960s and 1970s through several Western film productions of Karl May novels. Many scenes have been shot at the lakes or waterfalls.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<h3>Routes and distances</h3><br>
<p>The Plitvice Lakes have formed in a depression between the Mala Kapela mountain in the west and the Plješevica mountain in the east amidst the Dinaric Alps. The national park is located at the national route D1 Zagreb–Split between Slunj and Korenica in the vicinity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Other larger municipalities within the surrounding area are Ogulin, Rakovica, Otočac, Gospić and Bihać in Bosnia.</p><br>
<p>The shortest linear distance between the Adriatic coast and the national park is 55 km. By road from the coastal town of Senj the distance is about 110 km. After traversing the Velebit mountain range travelers reach the Croatian karst plains of Lika. These plains are characterized by many karst poljes (e.g. the Gacko polje).</p><br>
<p>The fastest north-south road connection within Croatia, the highway A1 Zagreb–Split is distanced about 50 km west of the national park and thus circumvents the protected area. Plitvice Lakes National Park can be reached from Karlovac exit in the north, from Otočac exit in the west or Gornja Ploča exit in the south.</p><br>
<p>The nearest airports are Zadar, Zagreb and Rijeka. The nearest train stations are Josipdol and Plaški, although no direct bus connection from these train stations to the lakes exists. Using public transport the lakes can easily be reached by direct bus lines from Zagreb, Karlovac, Zadar or Split.</p><br>
<h3>Outline</h3><br>
<p>The area of Plitvice Lakes National Park extends across two political subdivisions or counties (Croatian županija). Its 296.85 km&sup2; area is divided between Lika-Senj County (90.7 percent) and Karlovac County (9.3 percent). Hence the national park authority is under national jurisdiction. The overall water body area is about 2 km&sup2;. The two largest lakes, Prošćansko jezero and Kozjak, cover about 80 percent of the overall water body area. These lakes are also the deepest, with a depth of 37 and respectively. On Lake Kozjak, low-noise and ecologically-friendly electric boats are being used. None of the other lakes in the park exceeds 25 m in depth. The altitude drop from the first lake to the last is 133 m.</p><br>
<p>The 16 lakes that can be seen from the surface are grouped into the 12 Upper Lakes (Gornja jezera) and the four Lower Lakes (Donja jezera).</p><br>
<p>The highest waterfalls are the Large Waterfall (kroat. Veliki slap) at the end of the Lower Lakes, over which the Plitvica river falls, and Galovački buk at the Upper Lakes.</p><br>
<p>Within the national park area there are 19 small settlements. Altogether they form the Plitvice Lakes municipality (Croatian općina Plitvička Jezera). The municipality is part of Lika-Senj County. The seat is located in Korenica.</p><br>
<p>The Plitvice Lakes area has always been regarded as part of the historic regions of Lika and Kordun. During the Ottoman Wars, the region was part of the Croatian Military Frontier that was under direct control of the Habsburg Council of War.</p><br>
<h2>Topography and geology</h2><br>
<h3>Terrain</h3><br>
<p>The particular geographic position of the Plitvice Lakes and the specific climate features contributed to the emergence of many natural phenomena and a rich biodiversity within this area. Despite the vicinity to the Mediterranean climatic region, a moderate mountainous climate prevails at the Plitvice Lakes. These climatic conditions prevail due to the Velebit mountain range, which acts as a climatic separator between the coastal region and the Lika high plateau. For centuries, legends have been created about this mythic mountain range.</p><br>
<p>The availability of water, influenced by the configuration of the terrain, has a great impact on the biodiversity of this area. The Plitvice Lakes are surrounded by various mountains. The western side of the national park area is enclosed by the Mala Kapela mountain, while the eastern side is enclosed by the Plješevica mountain, which also represents the border to Bosnia and Hercegovina. Plitvice Lakes National Park is situated in the Plitvice plateau which is surrounded by three mountains that are part of the Dinaric Alps: Plješevica mountain (Gornja Plješevica peak 1,640 m), Mala Kapela mountain (Seliški Vrh peak at 1,280 m), and Medveđak (884 m).</p><br>
<p>The afforested mountain slopes serve as water reservoirs. They are also a refuge for many animal species. The large difference in altitude in a narrow space between the mountains in the south and the Korana river in the north also represents a significant criterion for biodiversity in this region. The overall difference in altitude within the national park area is 912 m (the highest elevation is Seliški vrh at 1279 m, the lowest elevation is reached at 367 m at the bridge across the Korana river).</p><br>
<p>The national Park is underlain by karstic rock, mainly dolomite and limestone with associated lakes and caves, this has given rise to the most distinctive feature of the lakes. Right at the lakes, the Golubnjača Cave (145 m) before the second Korana waterfall and Šupljara Cave (68 m) above Lake Kaluđerovac can be visited. Other caves e.g. are Mračna Cave (160 m), Vila Jezerkinje Cave (104 m) and Golubnjača at Homoljačko Field (153 m). Within the national park, several pit-caves exist, such as the Čudinka pit-cave (-203 m) or Jama on Vršić (-154 m, length 110 m). In Rodića Cave at Sertić Poljana and in Mračna Cave at the Lower Lakes, cave bear bones were found, so these sites may be considered paleontologically significant.</p><br>
<h3>Rivers</h3><br>
<p>The Plitvice Lakes originate in the south of the park area at the confluence of Bijela Rijeka (English White River) and Crna Rijeka (English Black River). These rivers originate south of the municipality of Plitvički Ljeskovac and unite at one of the bridges in this village. From this place onwards to the lakes, the water masses are referred to as Matica (English for root or origin). At the bay of Liman (also called Limun), a part of Prošćansko jezero, another little river flows into the lakes. This river is fed by permanent springs; the water quantity, however, varies. Temporarily, water from other, usually dead creeks reaches Prošćansko jezero from the west.</p><br>
<p>The river Plitvica reaches the Plitvice lake chain at the northern end via the Large Waterfall. This place is called Sastavci (English confluence or composition). The water masses of the Plitvice Lakes and the river Plitvice form the Korana river.</p><br>
<h3>Properties of the underground</h3><br>
<p>The underground configuration of the Plitvice Lakes consists of various geologic features. Generally, the whole area of Plitvice Lakes National Park can be attributed to the South-East European karst area. The typical feature of this karst area is brittle or porous rock, mostly limestone or dolomite. This configuration creates different geomorphological phenomena being referred to as dolina (sinkhole), polje, uvala, ponor, etc.</p><br>
<p>In the future, the analysis of underground water courses could be an interesting field of research for speleologists. Up to now, little has been known about these unexplored courses. At first sight, a lack of water in the karst region could be ascertained. However, this is only the case on the surface. The major part of natural phenomena takes place underground, where an abundance of water exists.</p><br>
<p>Due to the features of limestone, many rivers drain away into the rock. Therefore, extensive underground river systems exist. Upon reaching hard rock, rivers emerge on the surface. This phenomenon of underground karst rivers (Croatian rijeka ponornica) can also be observed at the Plitvice Lakes.</p><br>
<p>Tufa sediments have been formed from the Pleistocene onwards in sinkholes or depressed areas between the surrounding mountains. Generally seen, the underground of the Plitvice Lakes could be categorized into two zones. The Upper Lakes in the south predominantly consist of dolomite rock. The Lower lakes in the north predominantly consist of limestone rock. Dolomite rock is slightly harder than limestone. Though fragile upon physical influence, dolomite rock has lower water permeability properties. In contrast, limestone rock is more compact and massive, but has a higher water permeability.</p><br>
<p>From an aerial perspective, significant differences between the terrain of the Upper and the Lower Plitvice Lakes can be observed. At the Upper Lakes several little lakes have formed parallel to each other and a rather shallow water flow can be observed. The Lower Lakes, however, are much larger and virtually drill their path through the rock. Furthermore, there are only a few lakes at the Lower Lakes. They have formed a canyon, which continues as river Korana.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>On average, the annual precipitation rate at the Plitvice Lakes is 1,500 mm. Usually, in spring and fall the largest rain quantities are measured. The average relative air humidity is 81.8 percent. In January, the average temperature is 2.2 °C (36 °F). During the summer months of July and August, the temperature rises to 17.4 °C (63 °F). The general average annual temperature is 7.9 °C (46 °F). Snow falls from November until March. Usually, the lakes are frozen during December and January.</p><br>
<p>The water temperature at the springs is usually below 10 °C (50 °F). Within the rivers and lakes, the water temperature rises up to 20 °C (68 °F). The following example for different water temperatures measured on July 7, 1954 demonstrates large temperature differences within the lakes: Within lake Kozjak at the depth of 4 m a temperature of 18.9 °C (66 °F) has been measured. At a depth of 20 m, 5 °C (41 °F) have been measured. At 44 m depth, virtually at the bottom of the lake, a temperature of 4.1 °C (39 °F) has been measured.</p><br>
<h2>The dissolution and creation of rock</h2><br>
<p>The lakes of Plitvice are a result of century-old processes and the sedimentation of chalk, which is abundantly available in the waters of this karst area. These sedimentations are called tufa or travertine (both are called sedra or tuf in the Croatian language, apart from many other names like bigar or vapneni mačak).</p><br>
<p>A distinctive feature of the Plitvice lakes is the fact that they do not represent separated, stationary waters. The lakes altogether have always been seen as one composed system of lakes. Due to constant changes it is not even possible to pursue individual analyses of single lakes. The water masses reaching the lakes at the upper or lower part of the system are continuously changing the outlook of the lakes and the surrounding landscape. They finally exit the lakes as river Korana. On the one hand, chalk tufa is being washed away partly. On the other hand, new sediments are continuously being formed. Thus, new waterfalls are being formed while others run dry. Nature itself is continuously adapting to these new conditions. As a whole, the complex of lakes represents a very sensitive and labile ecosystem.</p><br>
<h3>Alteration processes</h3><br>
<p>In geological terms, the actual phenomena molding the Plitvice Lakes are quite young. The complex processes of dissolution and sedimentation of limestone require specific climatic preconditions. These have only existed since the end of the ice age about 12,000 to 15,000 years ago, according to tufa radiocarbon datings.</p><br>
<p>Apart from weather and temperature factors, the water quality and other natural factors are significant for the creation of these natural phenomena, prevailing at the Plitvice Lakes. By passing through the limestone underground the karst rivers dissolve chalk (calcite), which concentrates in the water. The saturation level of calcite within the frontal flows is thus very high. The water becomes significantly mineralized, super-saturated with calcium and magnesium-hydrogencarbonate.</p><br>
<p>The dissolution of limestone happens through alteration processes and the effects of carbonic acid. In a natural environment, carbonic acid (H2CO3) is formed by the dissolution of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the air or from rainwater (H2O). Limestone or dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) mainly consists of calcite (CaCO3), which is not very soluble in water. Calcite, however, is dissolved by carbonic acid, thus creating calcium hydrogencarbonate (Ca(HCO3)2). This is shown by the following formulas:</p><br>
<p>The quantity of calcium hydrogencarbonate (also called calcium bicarbonate) dissolved in water depends on the quantity of dissolved carbon dioxide in the water. Generally, the following could be said: The colder the water, the higher the quantity of dissolved calcium hydrogencarbonate. Depending on the conditions for the alteration processes, scientists identified limestone dissolution rates of 0.01 to 4 millimeters a year. (It is possible that by the effect of rainwater about 1 m of limestone is dissolved in about 10,000 years.)</p><br>
<h3>Sedimentation processes</h3><br>
<p>The previously mentioned mechanical and chemical dissolution processes are regularly occurring natural phenomena. A unique process occurring at the Plitvice Lakes, however, is the sedimentation of water-bound chalk at certain places. With regard to other similar phenomena in the world, at Plitvice Lakes the sedimentation of chalk and the formation of tufa happens dynamically all along the watercourse and in various forms (fluviatile sedimentation). It is thus not a static phenomenon occurring at only single places.</p><br>
<p>Another unique and distinctive feature are the natural factors, particularly the influences of the vegetation in the process of sedimentation. While passing the vegetation, barriers are being created by foaming water. These naturally created barriers decelerate and dam the waters, thus forming lakes. At Plitvice, this constant interplay between water, air, rock and vegetation can easily be observed. The foaming water creates ever growing and impressive waterfalls. The thresholds grown up above the water level, create cataracts.</p><br>
<p>About 30 km north of the lakes at the conflux of the Korana and Slunjčica rivers, right in the center of the town of Slunj, similar phenomena occur. This part of the town, called Rastoke, is often being referred to as "the Small Lakes of Plitvice."</p><br>
<h4>Preconditions for sedimentation</h4><br>
<p>Measurements of carbon dioxide quantities in the water show that they correspond with continuous sedimentation processes in the Plitvice Lakes area. Carbon dioxide quantities at the springs are about twenty times higher than in the atmosphere. The quantity of carbon dioxide decreases along the water route. The Plitvica river for example loses even up to 97 percent of its original quantity of carbon dioxide along its route.</p><br>
<p>The sedimentation of calcium carbonate from the water occurs only at certain temperature conditions (only above 14 °C), e.g. when the water warms up or by evaporation or by another loss of carbon dioxide, additionally fostered by water plants and moss. Since sedimentation only occurs under warm, humide climate conditions, these phenomena have only been occurring since the end of the last ice age. Since then, a layer of hardened tufa, also called travertine, has been formed on the limestone ground.</p><br>
<p>The area of a river, in which the formation of tufa occurs, is called precipitation area. Along the Korana river for example, measured from its origins tufa is being formed only along the first 10 to 15 km, even if according to pH measurements the conditions would be favorable further down the river. At the ground of Lake Kozjak a constant yearly sedimentation of 0,8 millimeters during the past 3,000 years has been ascertained. Yearly, the barriers are growing up to 13 millimeters in height. Tufa formation processes thus surpass erosion activities, which would destroy the sensitive barriers of the lakes. It is estimated that the tufa sedimentations at the ground of the lakes date back 6,000 or even 7,000 years.</p><br>
<p>The precipitation of calcium carbonate, however, does not occur right at the springs of the rivers that flow into the Plitvice Lakes. For the precipitation of carbonate chalk (calcium carbonate) the water needs to reach a certain mineral saturation level. At the springs this saturation level is about 1. For the precipitation, the water saturation level needs to be higher than 3. At the same time, the pH value of the water needs to be above 8,0 (slightly alkaline).</p><br>
<h4>Thresholds become barriers</h4><br>
<p>Tufa barriers are the result of continuous sedimentation processes along natural thresholds. As the water flows in thin layers over thresholds, it is splashed up. This disturbs the chemical balance and causes precipitation of the carbonates, which then creates sedimentary deposits. Since the water forms larger surfaces at these places, increased quantities of carbon dioxide (CO2) are released. Calcium carbonate is secreted in the form of microcrystals that are deposited, eventually creating tufa sediments (CaCO3). This phenomenon particularly occurs on abundantly available mosses, enabling better adherence of the crystals.</p><br>
<p>In the course of time, older barriers can be flooded by rising water levels since other barriers have outgrown the older ones. 400 years ago, there were two lakes in the place of today&#39;s Kozjak lake. In the lowest third of the lake, at the level of Matijaševića draga, a crown of an underwater barrier that is 40 m high, is stretching 4 m below the water surface. This barrier certainly formed a magnificent waterfall in the past. The travertine barrier at the Kozjak bridges (at the current end of the Kozjak lake), however, grew faster. Thus, 400 years ago two lakes merged in one. That is why the greatest depths of Kozjak lake are in its lower basin (north from the little island).</p><br>
<h4>Influence of the vegetation</h4><br>
<p>Mosses, algae and water plants play a major role in forming the unique landscape of the Plitvice Lakes and its tufa barriers. Up until the 21st century, it was supposed that plants extract carbon dioxide from the water for photosynthesis purposes and that in return oxygen is being released, thus resulting in the sedimentation of hydrogen carbonate (phytogenesis). The leading scientist arguing for this theory was Ivo Pevalek. Thanks to him the Plitvice Lakes have been put under national protection.</p><br>
<p>Recent scientific evidence indicates that the vegetation is not primarily responsible for the extraction of carbonate from the flowing water. However, plants indirectly contribute to tufa formation. Pivotal for the sedimentation is the deceleration, aeration and spraying of the water. Mosses are a substrate for sedimentation. They are giving form to the created travertine, and the Plitvice Lakes waterfalls can thank mosses for their feature. Depending on various species, various biological types of travertine can be differentiated.</p><br>
<p>Photosynthesis activities of algae and mosses in conjunction with the water, however, foster the crystallization of sediments due to the extraction of carbon dioxide. These effects are fostered by millions of microscopically-small bacteria and algae that grow on such plants. They are secreting mucus that is adhered to by the first microcrystals of calcite. The most significant plants of this kind are mosses of the species bryum and cratoneuron.</p><br>
<p>The young shoots of mosses are green and soft. They are mostly without travertine, while older shoots are encrusted by a thin and fragile yellow layer, completely covered and petrified by plant-formed travertine. The mosses foster not only the creation of tufa barriers but they also become part of the barrier. The moss gets encrusted with travertine and fresh moss grows further out. First a crag is formed but later a cave roof forms under the crag. If the water continues flowing, the cave becomes progressively bigger. Older travertine is filled with fossilized algae and mosses. This type of tufa rock typical of the Plitvice Lakes is called "phytogeneous tufa."</p><br>
<h4>Adverse effects for tufa formation</h4><br>
<p>Even though the vegetation has beneficial effects for the formation of tufa, excessive concentrations of organic substances within the water have adverse effects on these formation processes. Excessive plant cover has adverse effects on mineral sedimentation. Down the Korana River from the Korana bridge, for example, travertine creation ends quite quickly, in spite of the supersaturation with calcium bicarbonate, because of the increased concentration of organic matter in the water. The park authorities have therefore begun systematic removal of excessive vegetation along the barriers. Water purity is the decisive factor for tufa formation. The water at the influx to the Plitvice Lakes is defined as pure from an analytical point of view. The Dissolved Organic Carbon (DOC) value of the water barely exceeds 2.5 mg/L at the influx to the Upper Lakes (Matica). At the Lower Lakes higher concentrations are measured (5.15 mg/L). At the springs of other Croatian rivers in the karst region similar concentrations have been recorded.</p><br>
<p>During the 20th Century, uncontrolled tourism and water pollution caused by waste water from the hotels or agricultural activities in the surroundings of the lakes have left detrimental traces. This has led to an increasing eutrophication of the lakes (increased concentrations of organic substances within the water). For the sustainable formation of tufa it is therefore imperative to protect this extremely sensitive area from excessively harmful human influence. Since 2006, it has been strictly forbidden to bathe or swim in the lakes. Previously, swimming had been allowed in Lake Kozjak.</p><br>
<h4>Types of rock</h4><br>
<h2>Flora and Fauna</h2><br>
<p>With regard to plant and animal diversity, the area of the Plitvice Lakes belongs to the most significant areas of Croatia, due to climatic conditions and on the other hand due to the location of this area, since the lakes are far away from polluted and noisy cities or industrial plants. For reasons of the poor industrial development of this region and early introduced protection measures, a nearly untouched landscape has been preserved. In the partially primeval beech and fir forests various rare species, such as the brown bear have survived.</p><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>The Plitvice Lakes national park is heavily forested, mainly with beech, spruce, and fir trees, and features a mixture of Alpine and Mediterranean vegetation. It has a notably wide variety of plant communities, due to its range of microclimates, differing soils and varying levels of altitude.</p><br>
<p>Scientists have so far listed 1,267 different plants out of 109 species that can be found within the area of the national park. 75 plants are endemic, which means that they have first</p><br>
<p>been defined and classified in this area of the world or not far from it. A great number of these plants and species is protected by law. Within the national park area 55 different species of orchids can be found.</p><br>
<p>Examples of endemic plants to be found in the national park:</p><br>
<p>Examples of other rare plants:</p><br>
<p>The great plant diversity creates a fascinating interplay of colors changing with the seasons. The lake area is surrounded by dense forests. The national park has an area of 29,842 hectares, out of which 22,308 hectares are forests (74.75 percent), 6,957 ha are meadows (23.31 percent) in village areas and 217 ha (0.72 percent) are water areas. A unique area is the forest of Čorkova uvala, a 79.50 ha large virgin forest in the northwestern part of the park. The beech and fir trees in this area of the park are up to 700 years old.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>The area of the national park is home to an extremely wide variety of animal and bird species. Rare fauna such as the European brown bear, wolf, eagle, owl, lynx, wild cat, and capercaillie can be found there, along with many more common species.</p><br>
<p>The wider area of the national park is one of the last areas in Europe, in which a great number of wild brown bears and wolves can be found. The rich fauna of the Plitvice Lakes can be summed up as follows: As a whole, there exist about 50 species of mammals. At the moment, scientists have discovered 321 different kinds of butterflies, out of which 76 are addressed as day-flying butterflies and 245 as nocturnal moths. Scientists, however, estimate that up until now only about 40 percent of the whole population of butterflies have been ascertained. Furthermore, 12 amphibian species, as well as some species of reptiles have been ascertained so far: e.g. the viviparous lizard (Lacerta vivipara), the european green lizard (Lacerta viridis), the dice snake (Natrix tessellata), Vipera berus, Vipera ammodytes and the european pond turtle (Emys orbicularis).</p><br>
<p>As regards bird species, the Plitvice Lakes rank third among other Croatian national parks. Up to now, 157 species have been counted, of which 70 have been recorded as breeding there. The Plitvice Lakes are also home to many kinds of bats. Recent findings list about 20 different kinds of bat species, among them the rare species of Plecotus.</p><br>
<p>As original species the brown trout (Salmo trutta fario and Salmo trutta lacustris) can be named. Salmo trutta fario prevails at the Upper Lakes, while Salmo trutta lacustris predominantly exists within Lake Kozjak. These species developed under different life conditions independently from each other within the various lakes.</p><br>
<p>Due to the spreading growth of the vegetation at the barriers, allochthonous (species that do not belong to this ecosystem) fish species spread quickly and thus endanger autochthonous trout species. Apart from the trouts, common minnows (Phoxinus phoxinus) too exist. By human interference the species salvelinus alpinus and the North American rainbow trout have been exposed to this ecosystem. Recently, even European chub (Squalius cephalus) and common rudd (Scardinius erythropthalmus), species whose emergence could be attributed to climate change, have been discovered. The number of crayfish that have almost been extinct is now again increasing. Even rare olms (Proteus anguinus) can be found in the karst caves of this region.</p><br>
<p>Examples of some animals that exist in the national park:</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>While other nature protection areas are located far away from any interference by man, the Plitvice Lakes have permanently been exposed to human influence in the course of history. The Plitvice Lakes do not represent an abandoned or lonely nature reserve. They are located along an important transport route and have always been a meeting place of occidental and oriental cultural influences.</p><br>
<h3>Early History and Medieval Age</h3><br>
<p>Humans have inhabited the Plitvice Lakes area for thousands of years. It has been settled in turn by Illyrians, Japods, Celts, Romans, Avars, Slavs, Croats and Turks. Under Julius Caesar the region was incorporated as the province of Illyricum into the Roman Empire. The areas of the neighborly tribes of the Pannonians, the Liburnians and Dalmatians were united into the province of Dalmatia. Successively, the Ostrogoths took over the rule. After the Battle of Nedao in 454, the Ostrogoths were rewarded with a federation agreement with the Roman Empire.</p><br>
<p>During the 6th century, Avars settled in this region, which were accompanied by the Croats. The Croats eventually defied Avar control and settled permanently in this region. In medieval times, frequent attacks by Mongols posed a permanent threat to the settled population. The lakes formed part of the medieval kingdom of Croatia which in 1102 elected to be in personal union with Hungary.</p><br>
<p>Croat rule and particularly the rule of the noble families Zrinski and Frankopan led to economic recovery in the wider area. On the remnants of an ancient settlement of the Japods and Romans a monastery was built at the lakes. Presumably, this monastery belonged to the Order of Saint Paul the First Hermit (Croatian pavlinci) or the Knights Templars. Today, only ancient wall remnants of this building (Croatian gradina) exist. The foundation was made of travertine rock.</p><br>
<h3>Ottoman Wars and the Habsburgs</h3><br>
<p>In 1493, not far away from the Plitvice Lakes a decisive battle in Croatian history between the Austrian and Ottoman Empire took place. During the Battle of Krbava Field almost the entire Croatian nobility was killed. The Ottomans advanced far into Western lands up to Croatia and Hungary. In 1527, the Croatian Parliament elected the Habsburg monarch Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria as the new king of Croatia in the hope of resources to ward of the Ottoman advance. In 1528, the area fell to the Ottomans and was retaken by the Habsburg Empire 150 years later.</p><br>
<p>In 1538, king Ferdinand I ordered the establishment of the Croatian Military Frontier as a borderland of Habsburg Austria to the Ottoman Empire. The laws that prevailed in this area under special jurisdiction had formative impact on the local population for centuries. As a consequence of the establishment of this special regime, people abandoned these areas in great masses towards the West.</p><br>
<p>In addition to the native Croats already inhabiting the region and serving in the Austrian military, many central Europeans migrated to the region as did Serb Orthodox refugees fleeing Ottoman repression, who were given refuge in the abandoned areas in exchange for military service. The entire population of the military frontier, particularly the so-called frontiersmen, had the duty to protect this area of permanent unrest and terrible destruction. The region once also used to be called the garden of the devil (hortus diabolus).</p><br>
<p>The Ottomans succeeded several times to gain control over the area of the Plitvice Lakes for shorter periods. In 1788, this area permanently fell back under Habsburg rule. When the Ottoman threat subsided, the Military Frontier was reverted to the civilian control of the Croatian viceroy (Ban). The area then formed part of Banovina of Croatia within the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and then part of the Socialist Republic of Croatia within the Socialist Yugoslavia. Today, it is part of the Republic of Croatia.</p><br>
<p>In 1805, another major rule change happened, which created an economic upturn. Dalmatia and Lika fell under the rule of Napoleon, who founded the Illyrian provinces. After 1814, the area of the Plitvice Lakes came back under Habsburg rule. Since 1850, only professional soldiers served in the Military Frontier. This was also a time of national awakening in Croatia. In 1871, the famous Croatian politician Eugen Kvaternik was killed north of the lakes at Rakovica. The Croatian rebellion was put down by Austrian authorities. Kvaternik propagated the rule of law and argued for the liberation from Austrian-Hungarian predominance.</p><br>
<h3>Farmlands becoming an area of recreation</h3><br>
<p>In former times, the local population lacked the proper comprehension of the natural values of the Plitvice Lakes. Farmers had to focus on securing the daily bread for their families in these dour times, which was accompanied by grave changes to nature. For example, smaller lakes were filled up with earth or people adapted the flow of the rivers to their individual needs.</p><br>
<p>Already in 1861, an accommodation for travelers was erected at Velika Poljana. The local population called this accommodation the Emperors house, since imperial military officers used to reside in this location. For the visit of Crown Princess Stéphanie of Belgium, the wife of Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria in 1888, the Plitvice Lakes and their surroundings were arranged for tourist purposes for the first time in history. Two paths still bear the names of the daughters of the Emperor Franz Joseph: "Stephanies Path" (Croatian Štefanijin put) and "Dorothea&#39;s Path" (Dorotejin put).</p><br>
<p>In 1890, the tradesman Ante Devčić from Senj built the first hotel with a restaurant at Prošćansko jezero. However, he exaggerated in his efforts and also caused partly irreparable damage on the nature. For example, he constructed canals across the travertine barriers for his saw mill that are visible even today.</p><br>
<p>At the same place, today called Labudovac, Gustav Janeček, a Czech from Zagreb, built a restaurant and accommodation. In 1893, Janeček founded the Society for the preservation of the Plitvice Lakes (Croatian Društvo za uređenje i poljepšanje Plitvičkih jezera), with the aim of preserving the lakes after all negative influence they have been exposed to. The society also built a hotel at the lakes. In 1898, one of the waterfalls was named after Croatian opera singer Milka Ternina. She gave money from concerts to preserve the park, upgrade tracks and build pathways.</p><br>
<p>During the First World War, the Croatian parliament in Zagreb passed the Law on the Protection of the Plitvice Lakes in 1916. However, this law did not contain adequate measures of protection and is thus not regarded as official founding declaration of the national park.</p><br>
<p>During the following decades, preservation efforts reached a deadlock. However, some very significant meetings took place at the Plitvice Lakes during the Second World War, as for example the first secret regional conference of the League of Communists of Croatia (Croatian: Savez komunista Hrvatske, SKH) in 1940. On June 14, 1943 one of the founding sessions of the National Anti-Fascist Council of the People&#39;s Liberation of Croatia (ZAVNOH) took place at Plitvice Lakes. This was the highest governing organ of the anti-fascist movement in Croatia during World War II. The former Secretary General of the Communist Party of Croatia, Rade Končar, was born in Končarev Kraj at the Plitvice Lakes in 1911.</p><br>
<h3>The Lakes as National Park</h3><br>
<p>After the end of the Second World War, the unique natural phenomena of this area were acknowledged permanently. On April 8, 1949, the Plitvice Lakes were declared as a national park area and rigorous nature protection measures were established.</p><br>
<p>During the 1960s, a modern road connection to the Plitvice Lakes was constructed, which led to increasing traffic volumes. During these years, several hotels and other objects were erected according to innovative plans of Croatian architects. However, some buildings that would fit current standards were already demolished during the 1980s by the Communist authorities.</p><br>
<p>Between 1962 and 1968, many Western film productions of Karl May novels have been shot at the Plitvice Lakes (mainly German-French-Yugoslav cooperations). The most successful film of this series, Treasure of the Silver Lake was also produced at some locations within the national park. (Lake Kaluđerovac served as scenery for the Silver Lake.)</p><br>
<p>During the 1970s, detailed land registers of the national park were recorded. The park was inscribed on the UNESCO World Natural Heritage List in 1979 in recognition of its "outstanding natural beauty, and the undisturbed production of travertine (tufa) through chemical and biological action".</p><br>
<p>During the 1980s, tourism was booming in Yugoslavia. Plitvice Lakes National Park soon became one of Yugoslavias most popular tourist attractions. The beginning of the 1990s, however, marked another great turning point in the history of this national park. In March 1991 it became the scene of the Plitvice Lakes incident (also called the "Plitvice Bloody Easter"), the first armed confrontation of the Croatian War of Independence that resulted in fatalities. The park was held by local Serb rebels backed by Slobodan Milošević and the Yugoslav Peoples Army (JNA) as part of the self-proclaimed "Republic of Serbian Krajina" during the conflict and suffered some damage in the process, with hotels and other facilities being used as barracks. During the period under the control of Serb forces loyal to Belgrade, Croats were ethnically cleansed from the region systematically. The region was retaken by the Croatian Army in August 1995 during Operation Storm, and majority of Serb population was expelled.</p><br>
<p>During the war from 1991 until 1995, many buildings in the national park were destroyed or burnt down. Due to the apparent risk of mines, the park was even put on the UNESCO List of World Heritage in Danger during the war years. After the war, the Plitvice Lakes were among the first areas to be cleared of mines and renovated. In 1998, the national park was removed from the List of World Heritage in Danger. In 2000, the national park was expanded by a further 102 km² in order to protect the underground tributary streams.</p><br>
<p>Within the national park continuous scientific research projects are being carried out. The national park administration currently endeavors to introduce new, progressive protection measures. There is a proposal to replace the wooden bridges and paths by floating pontoon bridges. The existing wooden paths are anchored within the travertine sediments, creating the danger of seepage and cracks of the weak travertine.</p><br>
<p>The Plitvice Lakes are today one of the most frequently visited tourist attractions in Croatia. Due to their high natural, cultural and tourist significance they have become a motor for the local economy. About 1,000,000 visitors per year greatly contribute to the economic development of the wider region.</p><br>
<h2>Local customs and traditions</h2><br>
<p>The preservation of old customs and traditions is of high significance for the local population. The local culture has also been detected as an important factor for tourism. As regards architecture, the region of Lika is well known for its low wooden houses with roofs made of rye straw or shingles. Many features of the ancient living style are mirrored in local costumes. They tell a lot about regional affiliations or social standings of those who have worn those costumes. Under French rule, men were allowed to wear their costumes during military service.</p><br>
<p>Up until the 20th century, social gatherings during the winter months, when no agricultural activities could be performed, called "prelo" represented a typical tradition of this region. These gatherings served for the joint production of textiles or butter or for the further processing of harvest products (production of flour, etc.). These activities used to be accompanied by drinks and dances, particularly during the evenings. A well-known dance of this region is the round dance (Croatian kolo).</p><br>
<p>Local cuisine consists of drinks, such as Slivovitz (Croatian šljivovica), wine and coffee or dishes, such as soft cheese (Croatian vrhnje), polenta, pršut, paprika sausage, roasted suckling pig (Croatian: odojak) or lamb (Croatian: janjetina).</p><br>
<h2>Lake names and anecdotes</h2><br>
<p>Each of the Plitvice Lakes has a story or legend to tell. Most lake names stem from true events.</p><br>
<h2>Comparable phenomena worldwide</h2><br>
<p>Comparable phenomena to those prevailing at the Plitvice Lakes exist at Rastoke (Slunj), at the Krka National Park or at the rivers Una and the Pliva in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Band-e Amir lakes within the Hindu Kush mountain range form a similar system of lakes and dams, though diverging tufa formation processes prevail. Calc-sinter formation processes that have not emerged along a river flow can be observed at the Mammoth Hot Springs within Yellowstone National Park (USA) or at Pamukkale in Turkey. Jiuzhaigou is a nature reserve and national park located in the north of Sichuan, China. Also inscribed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site, its landscape of cascading lakes is made up of high-altitude karsts shaped by glacial, hydrological and tectonic activity.The area around Ocho Rios Jamaica is another region famous for its calc-sinter rivers. Most popular, particularly with cruise ships, is Dunn&#39;s River Falls.</p><br>
<p>Gailey Reservoir is a pair of canal feeder reservoirs in South Staffordshire, separated by a dam, and owned by the Canal & River Trust. Gailey Upper Reservoir is to the east; Gailey Lower Reservoir to the west.</p><br>
<p>A connected reservoir, Calf Heath Reservoir, stands a little further to the west, beyond the M6 motorway. Calf Heath Reservoir is also where Greensforge Sailing Club is located. is one of the oldest sailing clubs in the Midlands.</p><br>
<p>Gailey Reservoir is the site of a nature reserve, operated by the West Midland Bird Club. Entry is by permit only. There is a large heronry on the island on the lower part.</p><br>
<p>The upper lake is regularly stocked with brown, rainbow and blue trout and both day and season ticket fishing with fly is available. Pike fishing is also permitted.</p><br>
<p>The lower lake has not been stocked for some time, and on recent nettings, returned very few fish. Fishing is not permitted at any time. The South Staffordshire Sailing club have use of this reservoir.</p><br>
<p>The reservoir is located at.</p><br>
<p>Blithfield Reservoir is a large raw water reservoir in South Staffordshire, England, owned by South Staffordshire Water.</p><br>
<p>Some 800 acres (324 hectares) of reservoir was formed on land sold by Baron Bagot to the South Staffordshire Water Works (SSWW) in the 1940s. Blithfield Reservoir was opened by Queen Elizabeth, The Queen Mother on Tuesday 27 October 1953.</p><br>
<p>The reservoir is a haven for wildlife, particularly birds, a fact that was recognised in 1988 when the reservoir and most of its surrounding woodland was designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest, (SSSI). Parts of the shoreline and surrounding woodland are only available to birdwatchers under a permit scheme, operated by the West Midland Bird Club, but much of the open water is visible from the road causeway which crosses the reservoir (grid reference SK055235), and there is access to the dam end of the reservoir. There is also an education centre to facilitate visits by school parties.</p><br>
<p>Blithfield was once a members only fly fishing destination, however, in recent years it has been opened up to day ticket holders. Day tickets are available from the Estate Office.</p><br>
<p>Blithfield reservoir walks give members of the public the chance to enjoy the area and its wildlife. The reservoir has been visited by many scarce and rare migrant birds, including an inland Arctic warbler (1993), Bonaparte&#39;s gull (1994 and 1996), blue-winged teal (1996 and 2000) and squacco heron (2004).</p><br>
<p>The Lower East Side, sometimes abbreviated as LES, is a neighborhood in the southeastern part of the New York City borough of Manhattan, roughly located between the Bowery and the East River, and Canal Street and Houston Street. Traditionally an immigrant, working-class neighborhood, it began rapid gentrification in the mid-2000s, prompting The National Trust for Historic Preservation to place the neighborhood on their list of America&#39;s Most Endangered Places.</p><br>
<h2>Boundaries</h2><br>
<p>The Lower East Side is roughly bounded by the Bowery to the west, East Houston Street to the north, the F.D.R. Drive to the east and Canal Street to the south. The western boundary below Grand Street veers east off of the Bowery to approximately Essex Street.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood is bordered in the south and west by Chinatown &ndash; which extends north to roughly Grand Street, in the west by Nolita and in the north by the East Village.</p><br>
<p>Historically, the "Lower East Side" referred to the area alongside the East River from about the Manhattan Bridge and Canal Street up to 14th Street, and roughly bounded on the west by Broadway. It included areas known today as East Village, Alphabet City, Chinatown, Bowery, Little Italy, and NoLIta. Parts of the East Village are still known as Loisaida, a Latino pronunciation of "Lower East Side".</p><br>
<p>Politically, the neighborhood is located in New Yorks 7th and 12th congressional districts. It is in the New York State Assemblys 65th district and 74th district, the New York State Senates 26th district; and New York City Councils 1st and 2nd district.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Prior to Europeans</h3><br>
<p>As was all of Manhattan Island, the area now known as the Lower East Side was occupied by members of the Lenape tribe, who were organized in bands which moved from place to place according to the seasons, fishing on the rivers in the summer, and moving inland in the fall and winter to gather crops and hunt for food. Their main trail took approximately the route of Broadway. One encampment in the Lower East Side area, near Corlears Hook was called Rechtauck or Naghtogack.</p><br>
<h3>Early settlement</h3><br>
<p>The population of the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam was located primarily below the current Fulton Street, while north of it were a number of small plantations and large farms called bouwerij (bowery) at the time (equivalent to "boerderij" in present-day Dutch). Around these farms were a number of enclaves of free or "half-free" Africans, which served as a buffer between the Dutch and the Native Americans. One of the largest of these was located along the modern Bowery between Prince Street and Astor Place. These black farmers were some of the earliest settlers of the area.</p><br>
<p>Gradually, during the 17th century, there was an overall consolidation of the boweries and farms into larger parcels, and much of the Lower East side was then part of the Delancy farm.</p><br>
<p>James Delanceys pre-Revolutionary farm east of post road leading from the city (Bowery) survives in the names Delancey Street and Orchard Street. On the modern map of Manhattan, the Delancey farm is represented in the grid of streets from Division Street north to Houston Street. In response to the pressures of a growing city, Delancey began to survey streets in the southern part of the "West Farm" in the 1760s. A spacious projected Delancey Square—intended to cover the area within todays Eldridge, Essex, Hester and Broome Streets—was eliminated when the loyalist Delancey familys property was confiscated after the American Revolution. The city Commissioners of Forfeiture eliminated the aristocratic planned square for a grid, effacing Delanceys vision of a New York laid out like the West End of London.</p><br>
<h3>Corlears Hook</h3><br>
<p>The point of land on the East River now called Corlears Hook was also called Corlaers Hook under Dutch and British rule, and briefly Crown Point during British occupation in the Revolution. It was named after the schoolmaster Jacobus van Corlaer, who settled on this "plantation" that in 1638 was called by a Europeanized version of its Lenape name, Nechtans or Nechtanc. Corlaer sold the plantation to Wilhelmus Hendrickse Beekman (1623–1707), founder of the Beekman family of New York; his son Gerardus Beekman was christened at the plantation, on August 17, 1653.</p><br>
<p>On February 25, 1643, volunteers from the New Amsterdam colony killed thirty Wiechquaesgecks at their encampment at Corlears Hook, as part of Kieft&#39;s War, in retaliation for ongoing conflicts between the colonists and the natives of the area, including their unwillingness to pay tribute, and their refusal to turn over the killer of a colonist.</p><br>
<p>The projection into the East River that retained Corlaers name was an important landmark for navigators for 300 years. On older maps and documents it is usually spelled Corlaers Hook, but since the early 19th century the spelling has been anglicized to Corlears. The rough unplanned settlement that developed at Corlaers Hook under the British occupation of New York during the Revolution was separated from the densely populated city by rough hills of glacial till: "this region lay beyond the city proper, from which it was separated by high, uncultivated, and rough hills", observers recalled in 1843.</p><br>
<p>As early as 1816, Corlears Hook was notorious for streetwalkers, "a resort for the lewd and abandoned of both sexes", and in 1821 its "streets abounding every night with preconcerted groups of thieves and prostitutes" were noted by the "Christian Herald". In the course of the 19th century they came to be called hookers. In the summer of cholera in New York, 1832, a two-storey wooden workshop was commandeered to serve as a makeshift cholera hospital; between July 18 and September 15 when the hospital was closed, as the cholera wound down, 281 patients were admitted, both black and white, of whom 93 died.</p><br>
<p>In 1833, Corlear&#39;s Hook was the location of some of the first tenements built in New York City.</p><br>
<p>The original location of Corlears Hook is now obscured by shoreline landfill. It was near the east end of the present pedestrian bridge over the FDR Drive near Cherry Street. The name is preserved in Corlears Hook Park at the intersection of Jackson and Cherry Streets along the East River Drive.</p><br>
<h3>Immigration</h3><br>
<p>The bulk of immigrants who came to New York City in the late 19th and early 20th centuries came to the Lower East Side, moving into crowded tenements there. By the 1840s, large numbers of German immigrants settled in the area, and a large part of it became known as "Little Germany" or "Kleindeutschland". This was followed by groups of Italians and Eastern European Jews, as well as Greeks, Hungarians, Poles, Romanians, Russians, Slovaks and Ukrainians, each of whom settled in relatively homogeneous enclaves. By 1920, the Jewish neighborhood was one of the largest of these ethnic groupings, with 400,000 people, pushcart vendors prominent on Orchard and Grand Streets, and numerous Yiddish theatres along Second Avenue between Houston and 14th Streets.</p><br>
<p>Living conditions in these "slum" areas were far from ideal, although some improvement came from a change in the zoning laws which required "new law" tenements to be built with air shafts between them, so that fresh air and some light could reach each apartment. Still, reform movements, such as the one started by Jacob A. Riis&#39; book How the Other Half Lives continued to attempt to alleviate the problems of the area through settlement houses, such as the Henry Street Settlement, and other welfare and service agencies. The city itself moved to address the problem when it built First Houses on the south side of East 3rd Street between First Avenue and Avenue A, and on the west side of Avenue A between East 2nd and East 3rd Streets in 1935-36, the first such public housing project in the United States.</p><br>
<h3>Societal change and decline</h3><br>
<p>By the turn of the twentieth century, the neighborhood had become closely associated with radical politics, such as anarchism, socialism and communism, and was also known as a place where many popular performers had grown up, such as the Marx Brothers, Eddie Cantor, Al Jolson, George and Ira Gershwin, Jimmy Durante, and Irving Berlin. Later, more radical artists such as the Beat poets and writers were drawn to the neighborhood &ndash; especially the parts which later became the East Village &ndash; by the inexpensive housing and cheap food.</p><br>
<p>The German population decreased in the early twentieth century as a result of the General Slocum disaster and due to anti-German sentiment prompted by World War I. After World War II, the Lower East Side became New York City&#39;s first racially integrated neighborhood with the influx of African Americans and Puerto Ricans. Areas where Spanish speaking was predominant began to be called Loisaida.</p><br>
<p>By the 1960s, the influence of the Jewish and eastern European groups declined as many of these residents had left the area, while other ethnic groups had coalesced into separate neighborhood, such as Little Italy. The Lower East Side then experienced a period of "persistent poverty, crime, drugs, and abandoned housing".</p><br>
<h3>East Village split and gentrification</h3><br>
<p>The East Village was once considered the Lower East Side&#39;s northwest corner. However, in the 1960s, the demographics of the area above Houston Street began to change, as hipsters, musicians, and artists moved in. Newcomers and real estate brokers popularized the East Village name, and the term was adopted by the popular media by the mid-1960s. As the East Village developed a culture separate from the rest of the Lower East Side, the two areas came to be seen as two separate neighborhoods rather than the former being part of the latter.</p><br>
<p>By the 1980s, the Lower East Side had begun to stabilize after its period of decline, and once again began to attract students, artists and adventurous member of the middle-class, as well as immigrants from countries such as Bangladesh, China, the Dominican Republic, India, Japan, Korea, the Philippines and Poland.</p><br>
<p>In the early 2000s, the gentrification of the East Village spread to the Lower East Side proper, making it one of the trendiest neighborhoods in Manhattan. Orchard Street, despite its "Bargain District" moniker, is now lined with upscale boutiques. Similarly, trendy restaurants, including Clinton St. Baking Company & Restaurant, wd~50, Cube 63, and Falai are found on a stretch of tree-lined Clinton Street that New York Magazine described as the "hippest restaurant row" in the Lower East Side.</p><br>
<p>In November 2007, the Blue Condominium, a 32-unit, 16 story luxury condominium tower was completed at 105 Norfolk Street just north of Delancey Street, the pixellated, faceted blue design of which starkly contrasts with the surrounding neighborhood. Following the construction of the Hotel on Rivington one block away, several luxury condominiums around Houston, and the New Museum on Bowery, this new wave of construction is another sign that the gentrification cycle is entering a high-luxury phase similar to in SoHo and Nolita in the previous decade.</p><br>
<p>More recently, the gentrification that was previously confined to north of Delancey Street continued south. Several restaurants, bars, and galleries opened below Delancey Street after 2005, especially around the intersection of Broome and Orchard Streets. The neighborhood&#39;s second boutique hotel, Blue Moon Hotel, opened on Orchard Street just south of Delancey Street in early 2006. However, unlike The Hotel on Rivington, the Blue Moon used an existing tenement building, and its exterior is almost identical to neighboring buildings. In September 2013, it was announced that the Essex Crossing redevelopment project was to be built in the area, centered around the intersection of Essex and Delancey Streets, but mostly utilizing land south of Delancey Street.</p><br>
<h2>Demographics</h2><br>
<p>Based on data from the 2010 United States Census, the population of Lower East Side was 72,957, an increase of 699 (1.0%) from the 72,258 counted in 2000. Covering an area of 535.91 acres, the neighborhood had a population density of 136.1 PD/acre.</p><br>
<p>The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 22.6% (16,453) White, 10.9% (7,931) African American, 0.2% (142) Native American, 24.9% (18,166) Asian, 0.0% (13) Pacific Islander, 0.3% (191) from other races, and 1.6% (1,191) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 39.6% (28,870) of the population.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<h3>Immigrant neighborhood</h3><br>
<p>One of the oldest neighborhoods of the city, the Lower East Side has long been a lower-class worker neighborhood and often a poor and ethnically diverse section of New York. As well as Irish, Italians, Poles, Ukrainians, and other ethnic groups, it once had a sizeable German population and was known as Little Germany (Kleindeutschland). Today it is a predominantly Puerto Rican and Dominican community, and in the process of gentrification (as documented by the portraits of its residents in the Clinton+Rivington chapter of The Corners Project.)</p><br>
<p>Since the immigration waves from eastern Europe in the late 19th and early 20th century, the Lower East Side became known as having been a center of Jewish immigrant culture. In her 2000 book Lower East Side Memories: A Jewish Place in America, Hasia Diner explains that the Lower East Side is especially remembered as a place of Jewish beginnings for Ashkenazi American Jewish culture. Vestiges of the areas Jewish heritage exist in shops on Hester and Essex Streets, and on Grand Street near Allen Street. An Orthodox Jewish community is based in the area, operating yeshiva day schools and a mikvah. A few Judaica shops can be found along Essex Street and a few Jewish scribes and variety stores. Some kosher delis and bakeries, as well as a few "kosher style" delis, including the famous Katzs Deli, are located in the neighborhood. Second Avenue in the Lower East Side was home to many Yiddish theatre productions in the Yiddish Theater District during the early part of the 20th century, and Second Avenue came to be known as "Yiddish Broadway," though most of the theaters are gone. Songwriter Irving Berlin, actor John Garfield, and singer Eddie Cantor grew up here.</p><br>
<p>Since the mid-20th century, the area has been settled primarily by immigrants, primarily from Latin America, especially Central America and Puerto Rico. They have established their own groceries and shops, marketing goods from their culture and cuisine. Bodegas have replaced Jewish shops. They are mostly Roman Catholic.</p><br>
<p>In what is now the East Village, the earlier populations of Poles and Ukrainians have moved on and been largely supplanted by newer immigrants. The immigration of numerous Japanese people over the last fifteen years or so has led to the proliferation of Japanese restaurants and specialty food markets. There is also a notable population of Bangladeshis and other immigrants from Muslim countries, many of whom are congregants of the small Madina Masjid (Mosque), located on First Avenue and 11th Street.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood still has many historic synagogues, such as the Bialystoker Synagogue, Beth Hamedrash Hagadol, the Eldridge Street Synagogue, Kehila Kedosha Janina (the only Greek synagogue in the Western Hemisphere), the Angel Orensanz Center (the fourth oldest synagogue building in the United States), and various smaller synagogues along East Broadway. Another landmark, the First Roumanian-American congregation (the Rivington Street synagogue) partially collapsed in 2006, and was subsequently demolished. In addition, there is a major Hare Krishna temple and several Buddhist houses of worship.</p><br>
<p>Chinese residents have also been moving into Lower East Side, and since the late 20th century, they have comprised a large immigrant group in the area. The part of the neighborhood south of Delancey Street and west of Allen Street has, in large measure, become part of Chinatown. Grand Street is one of the major business and shopping streets of Chinatown. Also contained within the neighborhood are strips of lighting and restaurant supply shops on the Bowery.</p><br>
<h4>Jewish neighborhood</h4><br>
<p>While the Lower East Side has been a place of successive immigrant populations, many American Jews relate to the neighborhood in a strong manner, much as Chinatown in San Francisco holds a special place in the imagination of Chinese Americans, and Astoria in the hearts of Greek Americans. It was a center for the ancestors of many people in the metropolitan area, and it was written about and portrayed in fiction and films.</p><br>
<p>In the late twentieth century, Jewish communities have worked to preserve a number of buildings associated with the Jewish immigrant community.</p><br>
<p>Landmarks include:</p><br>
<p>The Educational Alliance Settlement house – 175 East Broadway</p><br>
<p>Henry Street Settlement – 263–267 Henry Street and 466 Grand Street</p><br>
<p>University Settlement House 184 Eldridge Street</p><br>
<p>Katz&#39;s Deli – 205 East Houston Street</p><br>
<p>Guss&#39; Pickles – 87 Orchard Street</p><br>
<p>Kossar&#39;s Bialys – 367 Grand Street</p><br>
<p>Gertel&#39;s Bake Shop – formerly at 53 Hester Street from 1914 until it closed in 2007</p><br>
<p>Knickerbocker Village – 10 Monroe Street</p><br>
<p>Streit Matzo Co. – 150 Rivington Street</p><br>
<p>Yonah Shimmel&#39;s Knish Bakery – 137 East Houston Street</p><br>
<p>Harris Levy Fine Linens since 1894 - 98 Forsyth Street</p><br>
<p>Russ & Daughters – 179 East Houston Street</p><br>
<p>Schapiro&#39;s Kosher Wine – Essex Street Market</p><br>
<p>Synagogues include:</p><br>
<p>Bialystoker Synagogue – 7–11 Willet Street</p><br>
<p>Beth Hamedrash Hagadol – 60–64 Norfolk Street</p><br>
<p>Eldridge Street Synagogue – 12 Eldridge Street</p><br>
<p>Kehila Kedosha Janina – 280 Broome Street</p><br>
<p>Angel Orensanz Center – the fourth-oldest synagogue building in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Congregation Chasam Sopher</p><br>
<p>Meseritz Synagogue</p><br>
<p>Stanton Street Synagogue</p><br>
<p>Boyaner kloiz at 247 East Broadway, opened in 1928 by the Boyaner Rebbe of New York</p><br>
<h3>Art scene</h3><br>
<p>The neighborhood has become home to numerous contemporary art galleries. One of the very first was ABC No Rio. Begun by a group of Colab no wave artists (some living on Ludlow Street), ABC No Rio opened an outsider gallery space that invited community participation and encouraged the widespread production of art. Taking an activist approach to art that grew out of The Real Estate Show (the take over of an abandoned building by artists to open an outsider gallery only to have it chained closed by the police) ABC No Rio kept its sense of activism, community, and outsiderness. The product of this open, expansive approach to art was a space for creating new works that did not have links to the art market place and that were able to explore new artistic possibilities.</p><br>
<p>Other outsider galleries sprung up throughout the Lower East Side and East Village—some 200 at the height of the scene in the 1980s, including the 124 Ridge Street Gallery among others. In December 2007, the New Museum relocated to a brand-new, critically acclaimed building on Bowery at Prince. A growing number of galleries are opening in the Bowery neighborhood to be in close proximity to the museum. The Museum of Reclaimed Urban Space, which opened in 2012, exhibits photography featuring the neighborhood in addition to chronicling its history of activism.</p><br>
<p>The neighborhood is also home to several graffiti artists, such as Chico and Jean-Michel Basquiat.</p><br>
<h3>Nightlife and live music</h3><br>
<p>As the neighborhood gentrified and has become safer at night, it has become a popular late night destination. Orchard, Ludlow and Essex between Rivington Street and Stanton Street have become especially packed at night, and the resulting noise is a cause of tension between bar owners and longtime residents. However, as gentrification continues, many established landmarks and venues have been lost.</p><br>
<p>The Lower East Side is also home to many live music venues. Punk bands played at C-Squat and alternative rock bands play at Bowery Ballroom on Delancey Street and Mercury Lounge on East Houston Street. Punk bands play at Ottos Shrunken Head and R-Bar. Punk and alternative bands play at Bowery Electric just north of the old CBGBs location. There are also bars that offer performance space, such as Pianos on Ludlow Street and Arlene&#39;s Grocery on Stanton Street.</p><br>
<p>The Lower East side is the location of the Slipper Room a burlesque, variety and vaudeville theatre on Orchard and Stanton. Lady Gaga, Leonard Cohen and U2, have all appeared there, while popular downtown performers Dirty Martini, Murray Hill and Matt Fraser often appear. Variety shows are regularly hosted by comedians James Habacker, Bradford Scobie, Matthew Holtzclaw and Matt Roper under the guise of various characters.</p><br>
<h2>Parks</h2><br>
<p>The Lower East Side is the home to many private parks, such as La Plaza Cultural. The Sara D. Roosevelt Park and Seward Park are among the public parks in the area.</p><br>
<h2>Education</h2><br>
<p>The Lower East Side Preparatory High School (LESPH) and Emma Lazarus High School (ELHS) are second-chance schools that enable students, aged 17–21, to obtain their high school diplomas. LESPH is a bilingual Chinese-English school with a high proportion of Asian students. ELHS&#39; instructional model is English-immersion with an ethnically diverse student body.</p><br>
<p>The Seward Park Campus comprises five schools with an average graduation rate of about 80%. The original school in the building was opened 1929 and closed 2006.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>There are multiple New York City Subway stations in the neighborhood, including Grand Street, Bowery, Second Avenue, Delancey Street – Essex Street, and East Broadway. New York City Bus routes include.</p><br>
<p>The Williamsburg Bridge and Manhattan Bridge connect the Lower East Side to Brooklyn. The FDR Drive is on the neighborhood&#39;s south and east ends.</p><br>
<p>There are multiple bike lanes in the area. Bike lanes are present on Allen, Chrystie, Clinton, Delancey, Grand, Houston, Montgomery, Madison, Rivington, Stanton, and Suffolk Streets; Bowery, East Broadway, and FDR Drive; the Williamsburg and Manhattan bridges; and the East River Greenway.</p><br>
<p>The Lower East Side is expected to be served by the Citywide Ferry Service starting in 2018.</p><br>
<h2>In popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Children&#39;s literature</p><br>
<p>All-of-a-Kind Family, a five-book series by Sydney Taylor first published from 1951 to 1978</p><br>
<p>The House on the Roof; A Sukkot Story by David A. Adler</p><br>
<p>Rebecca Rubin, a character in the American Girl doll and book series, is a Jewish girl growing up in an immigrant family in 1914.</p><br>
<p>Novels</p><br>
<p>Low Life by Luc Sante</p><br>
<p>Bread Givers by Anzia Yezierska</p><br>
<p>Lush Life by Richard Price</p><br>
<p>Ragtime by E. L. Doctorow</p><br>
<p>The Basketball Diaries by Jim Carroll</p><br>
<p>Wonder by R.J. Palacio</p><br>
<p>Call It Sleep by Henry Roth</p><br>
<p>Songs</p><br>
<p>"Slum Goddess" by The Fugs</p><br>
<p>"Ballad Of The Lower East Side" by Michael Monroe</p><br>
<p>"Beautiful Night" by B2ST</p><br>
<p>"Clinton St Girl" by Wakey!Wakey!</p><br>
<p>"Down on the Lower East Side" by Justin Townes Earle</p><br>
<p>"East Side Beat" by The Toasters</p><br>
<p>"East Side Story" by Emily King</p><br>
<p>"For My Family" by Agnostic Front</p><br>
<p>"Heavy Metal Lover" by Lady Gaga</p><br>
<p>"In the Flesh" by Blondie</p><br>
<p>"L.E.S. Artistes" by Santigold</p><br>
<p>"L.E.S." by Childish Gambino (aka Donald Glover)</p><br>
<p>"Living in L.E.S." by INDK</p><br>
<p>"Lower East Side Crew" by Warzone</p><br>
<p>"Lower East Side" by David Peel</p><br>
<p>"The Luckiest Guy On The Lower East Side" by The Magnetic Fields</p><br>
<p>"Ludlow St" by Julian Casablancas</p><br>
<p>"Ludlow Street" by Suzanne Vega</p><br>
<p>"Marry the Night" by Lady Gaga</p><br>
<p>"New York City Tonight" by GG Allin</p><br>
<p>"She Took a Lot of Pills (And Died)" by Robbie Fulks</p><br>
<p>"Southside" by Fun Lovin&#39; Criminals</p><br>
<p>"What&#39;s My Name?" by Rihanna ft. Drake</p><br>
<p>"Veni Vidi Vici" by Madonna</p><br>
<p>Motor-Cycle LP by Lotti Golden</p><br>
<p>David Peel & the Lower East Side Band, an early punk band</p><br>
<p>Gogol Bordello, a gypsy punk band from the area</p><br>
<p>The Holy Modal Rounders, a freak-folk band in the 1960s</p><br>
<p>Nausea, a crust punk band in the late 1980s and early 1990s</p><br>
<p>Plays</p><br>
<p>Secret History of the Lower East Side by Alice Tuan</p><br>
<p>Welcome to Arroyo&#39;s by Kristoffer Diaz</p><br>
<p>Films</p><br>
<p>Alphabet City</p><br>
<p>Batteries Not Included</p><br>
<p>Beautiful Losers</p><br>
<p>Before We Go</p><br>
<p>Cloverfield</p><br>
<p>The Cobbler</p><br>
<p>The Corruptor</p><br>
<p>Crossing Delancey</p><br>
<p>Date Night</p><br>
<p>Die Hard with a Vengeance</p><br>
<p>Donnie Brasco</p><br>
<p>Downtown 81</p><br>
<p>Frogs for Snakes</p><br>
<p>Hester Street</p><br>
<p>His People</p><br>
<p>I Am Legend</p><br>
<p>The Italian</p><br>
<p>Johnny Dangerously</p><br>
<p>Lucky Number Slevin</p><br>
<p>Men In Black</p><br>
<p>Mixed Blood</p><br>
<p>The Naked City</p><br>
<p>Nick and Norah&#39;s Infinite Playlist</p><br>
<p>The Night They Raided Minsky&#39;s</p><br>
<p>Once Upon a Time in America</p><br>
<p>P.S. I Love You</p><br>
<p>Raising Victor Vargas</p><br>
<p>Rent</p><br>
<p>Rhythm Thief</p><br>
<p>Sex and the City</p><br>
<p>Taxi Driver</p><br>
<p>The Wolfpack</p><br>
<p>When Harry Met Sally</p><br>
<p>Television</p><br>
<p>The Andy Milonakis Show</p><br>
<p>Forever</p><br>
<p>Gossip Girl</p><br>
<p>How To Make It In America</p><br>
<p>NYPD Blue</p><br>
<p>Breadwinners parodies the Lower East Side as the "Lower Yeast Side."</p><br>
<p>Video games</p><br>
<p>The Darkness</p><br>
<p>Syphon Filter 2</p><br>
<p>Grand Theft Auto IV</p><br>
<p>Music videos</p><br>
<p>"I&#39;ll Be Loving You Forever" by New Kids On The Block</p><br>
<p>"Darling It&#39;s True" by Locksley</p><br>
<p>"It Ain&#39;t Hard to Tell" by Nas</p><br>
<h2>Notable residents</h2><br>
<p>Adrienne Bailon (born 1983), recording artist and actress</p><br>
<p>George Barris (1922–2016), photographer best known for his photographs of Marilyn Monroe.</p><br>
<p>Sy Berger (1923–2014), baseball card designer with Topps</p><br>
<p>Joseph B. Bloomingdale (1842–1904) and Lyman G. Bloomingdale (1841–1905), co-founders of Bloomingdale&#39;s</p><br>
<p>Arlyne Brickman (born 1934), former mafia informant and prostitute</p><br>
<p>George Burns (1896–1996), comedian and actor</p><br>
<p>James Cagney (1899–1986), actor</p><br>
<p>Michael Che (born 1983), comedian and actor</p><br>
<p>Joshua Lionel Cowen (1877-1965), inventor and founder of Lionel Corporation, toy train manufacturer.</p><br>
<p>Jimmy Durante (1893–1980), singer, pianist, comedian and actor</p><br>
<p>Monk Eastman (1875–1920), gangster who ran the Eastman Gang</p><br>
<p>Fiorello LaGuardia (1882–1947), politician</p><br>
<p>Lady Gaga (born 1986), singer, songwriter, actress</p><br>
<p>Luis Guzmán (born 1956), actor</p><br>
<p>Stephen Grammauta (born 1916)</p><br>
<p>Ben Gazzara (1930–2012), actor, director</p><br>
<p>George Gershwin (1898–1937), composer, pianist</p><br>
<p>Vincent Gigante (1928–2005)</p><br>
<p>Lotti Golden (born 1949)</p><br>
<p>Marcus Goldman (1821–1904), banker, businessman, financier</p><br>
<p>Ruby Goldstein (1907–1984)</p><br>
<p>Samuel Gompers (1850-1924), labor union leader</p><br>
<p>Rocky Graziano (1919–1990), professional boxer</p><br>
<p>David Greenglass (1922–2014)</p><br>
<p>Sally Gross</p><br>
<p>Maggie Gyllenhaal</p><br>
<p>Jane Katz, Olympic swimmer</p><br>
<p>Jack Kirby</p><br>
<p>Evelyn Kozak</p><br>
<p>Meyer Lansky</p><br>
<p>Emanuel Lehman</p><br>
<p>Henry Lehman</p><br>
<p>Mayer Lehman</p><br>
<p>Lucky Luciano</p><br>
<p>The Marx Brothers</p><br>
<p>Jackie Mason (born 1931), comedian and actor</p><br>
<p>Walter Matthau</p><br>
<p>Julia Migenes</p><br>
<p>Zero Mostel</p><br>
<p>Jim Neu</p><br>
<p>Mikhail Odnoralov</p><br>
<p>Genesis P-Orridge</p><br>
<p>Lady Jaye Breyer P-Orridge</p><br>
<p>Anthony Provenzano</p><br>
<p>Lee Quiñones</p><br>
<p>Lou Reed</p><br>
<p>Edward G. Robinson</p><br>
<p>Sonny Rollins</p><br>
<p>Joseph Seligman</p><br>
<p>Bugsy Siegel</p><br>
<p>Sheldon Silver (born 1944), former Speaker of the New York State Assembly.</p><br>
<p>Al Singer (1909-1961), boxer</p><br>
<p>David South, musician and filmmaker</p><br>
<p>John Spacely (died 1993), musician, actor and nightlife personality whose life was chronicled in two Lech Kowalski documentaries, Story of a Junkie and Born To Lose: The Last Rock and Roll Movie.</p><br>
<p>Ysanne Spevack</p><br>
<p>Johnny Thunders</p><br>
<p>Rachel Trachtenburg (born 1993), musician, singer, actress, model, former radio host and activist.</p><br>
<p>B. D. Wong (born 1960), actor</p><br>
<p>Christopher Woodrow (born 1977), financier</p><br>
<p>Cragside is a Victorian country house near the town of Rothbury in Northumberland, England. It was the home of William Armstrong, 1st Baron Armstrong, founder of the Armstrong Whitworth armaments firm. An industrial magnate, scientist, philanthropist and inventor of the hydraulic crane and the Armstrong gun, Armstrong also displayed his inventiveness in the domestic sphere, making Cragside the first house in the world to be lit using hydroelectric power. The entire estate was technologically advanced, equipped with "wonderful hydraulic machines that do all sorts of things". In the grounds, Armstrong built dams and created lakes to power a sawmill, a water-powered laundry, early versions of a dishwasher and a dumb waiter, a hydraulic lift and a hydroelectric rotisserie. In 1887, Armstrong was raised to the peerage, the first engineer and the first scientist to be ennobled. He took his title from the name of his house, becoming Baron Armstrong of Cragside.</p><br>
<p>The original house on the site was a small shooting lodge which Armstrong built between 1862 and 1864. In 1869, he employed the architect R. Norman Shaw to enlarge Cragside; in two phases of work between 1869 and 1882, he transformed the house into a northern Neuschwanstein. The result was described by the architect and writer Harry Stuart Goodhart-Rendel as "one of the most dramatic compositions in all architecture". Armstrong filled the house with a significant art collection, he and his wife being patrons of many 19th-century British artists. Thus equipped and furnished, Cragside became an integral part of Armstrongs commercial operations; among others, the Shah of Persia, the King of Siam and the Crown Prince of Japan were fêted, and sold to, under Armstrongs roof.</p><br>
<p>Following Armstrongs death in 1900, his heirs struggled to maintain the house and estate. In 1910, the best of Armstrongs art collection was sold off, and by the 1970s, in an attempt to meet inheritance tax, plans were submitted for large-scale residential development of the estate. In that period, when asked by the National Trust to compile a gazetteer of the most important Victorian houses in Britain which the Trust should seek to save should they ever be sold, the architectural historian Mark Girouard placed Cragside at the top of the list. In 1977, when the Armstrong family did sell up, the house was acquired by the Trust, with the aid of a grant from the National Land Fund. A Grade I listed building, Cragside has been open to the public since 1979.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Modern magician</h3><br>
<p>William Armstrong was born on 26 November 1810 at Newcastle, the son of a corn merchant. Trained as a solicitor, he moved to London before he was twenty. Returning to Newcastle, in 1835 he met and married Margaret Ramshaw, the daughter of a builder. A keen amateur scientist, Armstrong began to conduct experiments in both hydraulics and electricity. In 1847, he abandoned the law for manufacturing and established W. G. Armstrong and Company at a site at Elswick, outside Newcastle. By the 1850s, with his design for the Armstrong Gun, Armstrong laid the foundations for an armaments firm that would, before the end of the century, see Krupps as its only world rival. He established himself as a figure of national standing: his work supplying artillery to the British Army was seen as an important response to the failures of Britains forces during the Crimean War. In 1859, he was knighted and made Engineer of Rifled Ordnance in official recognition of his contribution to the nations defence. The enormous fortune that flowed from these endeavours enabled the building of Armstrongs fantasy palace on the Northumbrian moors.</p><br>
<h3>Shooting box: 18621865</h3><br>
<p>Armstrong had spent much of his childhood at Rothbury, escaping from industrial Newcastle for the benefit of his often poor health. He returned to the area in 1862, not having taken a holiday for over fifteen years. On a walk with friends, Armstrong was struck by the attractiveness of the site for a house and, returning to Newcastle, he arranged for the purchase of a small parcel of land and decided to build a modest house on the side of a moorland crag. He intended a "house of eight or ten rooms and a stable for a pair of horses". The house was completed in the mid-1860s by an unknown architect; a two-storey box of little architectural distinction, it was nevertheless constructed and furnished to a high standard.</p><br>
<h3>Fairy palace: 18691900</h3><br>
<p>Armstrongs architect for Cragsides expansion was the Scot R. Norman Shaw; the original connection between the two men was made when Armstrong purchased a picture, Prince Hal taking the crown from his fathers bedside by John Callcott Horsley, that proved too large to fit into his townhouse in Jesmond, Newcastle. Horsley, a friend of both, recommended Shaw to design a suitably-sized extension to the banqueting hall Armstrong had previously built in the grounds. When this was completed in 1869, Shaw was asked to propose enlargements and improvements to the shooting lodge Armstrong had constructed at Rothbury some four years earlier. This was the genesis of the transformation of the house between 1869 and 1884. The architectural historian Andrew Saint records that Shaw sketched out the whole design for the "future fairy palace" in a single afternoon, while Armstrong and his guests were out on a shooting party. Over the course of the next thirty years, Cragside became the centre of Armstrongs world; reminiscing years later, in his old age, he remarked, "had there been no Cragside, I shouldn&#39;t be talking to you todayfor it has been my very life".</p><br>
<p>Shaw had begun his career in the office of William Burn and had subsequently studied under Anthony Salvin and George Edmund Street. The former had taught him the mastery of internal planning that was essential for the design of the large, and highly variegated, houses the Victorian wealthy craved. Salvin and Street had taught him to understand the Gothic Revival. At the young age of twenty-four he won the RIBA Gold Medal and Travelling Studentship. The knowledge Shaw gained was deployed to the full over the twenty years that he worked at Cragside. The long building period, and Armstrongs piecemeal, and changeable, approach to the development of the house, and his desire to retain the original shooting lodge at its core, occasionally led to tensions between client and architect and to a building that lacks an overall unity. Armstrong changed the purpose of a number of rooms as his interests developed and the German architectural historian, Herman Muthesius, writing just after Armstrongs death in 1900, noted that, "the house did not find the unqualified favour with Shaws followers that his previous works had done, nor did it entirely satisfy (Shaw)". Nevertheless, Shaws skills, as an architect and as a manager of difficult clients, ensured that Cragside, "in most views, (is composed) with memorable force".</p><br>
<p>Cragside also acted as an enormous display case for Armstrongs ever-expanding art collection. The best of his collection was hung in the drawing room, but Shaw also converted the museum into a top-lit picture gallery. Pride of place was given to John Everett Millaiss Chill October, bought by Armstrong at Christies in 1875, sold in the 1910 sale, and now in the private collection of Andrew Lloyd Webber. Armstrong also bought Millaiss Jephthahs Daughter, now at the National Museum Cardiff, in the same sale, paying 900 guineas for the pair. Cragside was as much used as a setting for Armstrongs commercial activities as for a residence. The architectural writer Simon Jenkins records; "Japanese, Persian, Siamese and German dignitaries paid court to the man who equipped their armies and built their navies". Clive Aslet notes a visit with the same purpose from the Crown Prince of Afghanistan. The King of Siam was staying in 1897, when activity at the Elswick Works was disrupted by a bitter strike over pay and hours.</p><br>
<p>In August 1884 the Prince and Princess of Wales made a three-day visit to Cragside; it was the apogee of Armstrongs social career. The royal arrival at the house was illuminated by ten thousand lamps and a vast array of Chinese lanterns hung in the trees on the estate, and by six balloons from which fireworks were launched, and a great bonfire lit on the Simonside Hills. On the second day of their visit, the Prince and Princess travelled to Newcastle, to formally open the grounds of Armstrongs old house, Jesmond Dean, which he had by then donated to the city as a public park. Three years later, at the time of the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria, Armstrong was ennobled as Baron Armstrong of Cragside. He was the first engineer and the first scientist to be granted a peerage. Among many other celebrations, he was awarded the freedom of the City of Newcastle. In his vote of thanks, the mayor noted that one in four of the entire population of the city was employed directly by Armstrong, or by companies over which he presided.</p><br>
<h3>Armstrong's heirs: 1900the present</h3><br>
<p>Armstrong died at Cragside on 27 December 1900, aged ninety, and was buried beside his wife in the churchyard at Rothbury. His gravestone carries an epitaph; His scientific attainments gained him a world wide celebrity and his great philanthropy the gratitude of the poor. Cragside, and Armstrongs fortune, were inherited by his great-nephew, William Watson-Armstrong. Watson-Armstrong lacked Armstrongs commercial acumen and a series of poor financial investments led to the sale of much of the great art collection in 1910. In 1972, the death of Watson-Armstrong&#39;s heir, William John Montagu Watson-Armstrong, saw the house and estate threatened by large-scale residential development, intended to raise the sums of money necessary to meet a substantial inheritance tax bill. Some years earlier, when advising the National Trust on the most important Victorian houses to be preserved for the nation in the event of their sale, Mark Girouard had identified Cragside as the foremost priority. A major campaign saw the house and grounds acquired by the Trust in 1977, with the aid of a grant from the National Land Fund.</p><br>
<p>In 2007, Cragside reopened after undergoing an 18-month refurbishment programme that included the rewiring of the entirety of the house. It has become one of the most-visited sites in North East England, with some 227,062 visitors in 2016. The Trust continues restoration work, allowing more of the house to be displayed; in 2016 Armstrongs electrical room was re-opened, in which he conducted experiments on electrical charges towards the end of his life. The experiments had led to the publication in 1897 of Armstrongs last work, Electrical Movement in Air and Water, illustrated with remarkable early photographs by his friend John Worsnop.</p><br>
<p>The Trust continues the reconstruction of the wider estate, with plans to redevelop Armstrong&#39;s glasshouses, including the palm house, the ferneries and the orchid house.</p><br>
<h2>Architecture and description</h2><br>
<p>Cragside is an example of Shaws Tudor revival style and his efforts created what the Pevsner Architectural Guide for Northumberland called "the most dramatic Victorian mansion in the North of England". The entrance front was described by Harry Stuart Goodhart-Rendel as "one of the most dramatic compositions in all architecture", and James Stevens Curl thought the house "an extraordinarily accomplished Picturesque composition". Criticism focuses on the buildings lack of overall coherence; Aslet and Powers describe the house as "large and meandering", and the architectural critics Dixon and Muthesius write that "the plan rambles along the hillside". Saint is even more dismissive; for him, "the plan of Cragside is little better than a straggle". The half-timbering used above the entrance has also been criticised, as unfaithful to the vernacular tradition of the North-East. Shaw would have been unconcerned; desiring it for "romantic effect, he reached out for it like an artist reaching out for a tube of colour".</p><br>
<p>The architectural historian J. Mordaunt Crook considers Cragside to be one of the very few country houses built by the Victorian commercial plutocracy that was truly "avant-garde or trend-setting". In his study, The Rise of the Nouveaux Riches, Crook contends that many new-monied owners were too domineering, and generally chose second-rate architects, rather than one of the first rank such as Shaw, as they tended to be more "pliant", allowing the clients to get their own way. The Rhenish flavour of the house makes a notable contrast with a country house that was almost contemporaneous with Cragside: the Villa Hügel constructed by Armstrongs greatest rival, Alfred Krupp. While Armstrongs Northumbrian fastness drew on Teutonic inspirations, his German competitor built a house that was an exercise in severe Neo-classicism.</p><br>
<p>The location for the house was described by Mark Girouard as "a lunatic site". Pevsner and Richmond call both the setting and the house Wagnerian. The ledge on which it stands is narrow, and space for the repeated expansions could only be found by dynamiting the rock face behind, or by building upwards. Such challenges only drove Armstrong on, and overcoming the technical barriers to construction gave him great pleasure, and was made easier by his use of the workforce and the technology of the Elswick Works. The architectural historian Jill Franklin notes that the vertiginous fall of the site is so steep that the drawing room, on a level with the first-floor landing at the front of the house, meets the rock face at the back.</p><br>
<p>Jenkins describes the plan of the house as "simpler than the exterior suggests". The majority of the reception rooms are located on the ground floor, as are the accompanying service rooms. The exception is the large extension Shaw added to the south-east from 1882. This includes the drawing room, completed in time for the visit of Edward VIII and Queen Alexandra, then Prince and Princess of Wales, in August 1884. The house is a Grade I listed building. It is of national importance for its collections of furnishings, furniture (much designed especially for Cragside), and fine and decorative arts, with work by many notable designers of the age, including William Morris, Dante Gabriel Rossetti, Philip Webb and Edward Burne-Jones. Pevsner notes that the art collection demonstrated "what was permissible to the Victorian nobleman in the way of erotica".</p><br>
<h3>Kitchen, service rooms and Turkish bath</h3><br>
<p>The kitchen is large by Victorian standards and forms a considerable apartment with the butlers pantry. It displays Armstrongs "technical ingenuity" to the full, having a dumb waiter and a spit run on hydraulic power. An electric gong announced mealtimes. For the visit of Edward and Alexandra, Armstrong brought in the Royal caterers, Gunters, who prepared in the kitchen an eight-course menu which included oysters, turtle soup, stuffed turbot, venison, grouse, peaches in maraschino jelly and brown bread ice cream. Off the kitchen, under the library, is a Turkish bath suite, an "unusual item" in a Victorian private house. The writer Michael Hall suggests that the bath, with its plunge pool, was intended as much to demonstrate Armstrong&#39;s copious water supply as for actual use. As was often the case, Armstrong also found practical application for his pleasures: steam generated by the Turkish bath supported the provision of heating for the house.</p><br>
<h3>Library and dining room</h3><br>
<p>Girouard describes the library as "one of the most sympathetic Victorian rooms in England". It belongs to the first phase of Shaws construction work and was completed in 1872. It has a large bay window which gives views out over the bridge and the glen. The room is half-panelled in oak and the fireplace includes fragments of Egyptian onyx, collected during Armstrongs visit to the country in 1872. The library originally contained some of Armstrongs best pictures, although most were rehung in the gallery and the drawing room, following Shaws further building campaign of the 1880s, and then sold in the 1910 sale. The highlight was Albert Joseph Moores Follow My Leader, dating from 1872. Andrew Saint considers the room "Shaws greatest domestic interior". The dining room off the library contains a "Gothic" fireplace with an inglenook.</p><br>
<p>A famous portrait of Armstrong by Henry Hetherington Emmerson shows him relaxing as a "modest Victorian plutocra(t)", sitting in the inglenook with his dogs, under a carved inscription on the mantlepiece reading East or West, Hame&#39;s Best. The stained glass in the windows of the inglenook is by William Morris, and other glass from Morris & Co., to designs by Rossetti, Burne-Jones, Webb and Ford Madox Brown, was installed in the library, the gallery and in the stairwells.</p><br>
<h3>Owl suite</h3><br>
<p>The Owl rooms were constructed in the first building campaign and form a suite for important guests. Their name derives from the carved owls that decorate the woodwork and the bed. The room is panelled in American Black walnut, the same wood from which the tester bed is carved. Saint notes that Shaw was "proud of the design", displaying a further "owl-bed" in an exhibition in 1877. The Prince and Princess of Wales occupied the rooms during their stay at Cragside in 1884. Other bedrooms, notably the Yellow and White rooms, were hung with wallpaper by William Morris, including early versions of his Fruit and Bird and Trellis designs. The wallpapers were reprinted using the original printing blocks and rehung in the Trust&#39;s renovations.</p><br>
<p>The gallery originally formed Armstrongs museum room and was built by Shaw between 1872 and 1874. It led to the observatory in the Gilnockie Tower. Later, the room formed a processional route to the newly-created drawing room, and was transformed into a gallery for pictures and sculpture. Its lighting displayed further evidence of Armstrongs technical ingenuity. Provided with twelve overhead lamps, the lighting for the room could be supplemented by a further eight lamps, powered by electric current "shunted from the lamps in the dining room (when they were) no longer wanted". Lighting, and his means of providing it, mattered to Armstrong, on both technical and aesthetic levels; "in the passageways and stairs the lamps are used without shades and present a most beautiful and star-like appearance."</p><br>
<h3>Drawing room</h3><br>
<p>The drawing room was constructed in the 1880s phase of building, when Armstrong had sold his Jesmond house and was residing solely at Cragside. Aslet suggests that the inspiration for the design was the great hall at Haddon Hall, Derbyshire, although Saint consider Shaws Dawpool Hall, Cheshire as the more likely source. Pevsner and Richmond also suggest Hardwick Hall and Hatfield House as models for the "spectacular" overall design. The room contains a colossal marble inglenook chimneypiece, reputed to weigh ten tons, and designed by Shaws assistant, W. R. Lethaby. Muthesius describes the fireplace as a "splendid example... with finely composed relief decoration". Jenkins considers it "surely the worlds biggest inglenook" and describes the overall impact of the room as "sensational", noting the top-lit ceiling and the elaborate Jacobethan plasterwork. Others have been less complimentary; the writer Reginald Turnor, no admirer either of Shaw or of Victorian architecture and its architects more generally, wrote of the rooms "flamboyant and rather sickening detail". By the time of its construction, Shaw, increasingly working for clients of great wealth, had moved on from his "Old English" style, and the room is designed and decorated in a grander and more opulent Renaissance taste.</p><br>
<h3>Billiard room</h3><br>
<p>The billiard room extension of 1895 is by Frederick Waller. It replaced a laboratory, in which Armstrong conducted experiments in electric currents. The billiard table and furniture was supplied by Burroughes and Watts. The billiard room and adjacent gun room formed a smoking suite, the previous absence of which was evidenced in a watercolour painted to commemorate the visit of the Prince and Princess of Wales. The Prince and Armstrong are shown smoking cigars on the terrace, as Victorian convention did not permit smoking in the principal reception rooms.</p><br>
<h2>Technology</h2><br>
<p>After his first visit to Cragside in 1869, Shaw described the house in a letter to his wife, noting the "wonderful hydraulic machines that do all sorts of things you can imagine". By building dams, Armstrong created five new lakes on the estate, Debden, Tumbleton, Blackburn, and the Upper and Lower lakes at Nellys Moss. In 1868, a hydraulic engine was installed, with water being used to power labour-saving machines such as laundry equipment and a hydraulic lift. Inspired by a watermill on the Dee in Dentdale, in 1870 Armstrong installed a Siemens dynamo in what was the worlds first hydroelectric power station. The resultant electricity was used to power an arc lamp installed in the picture gallery in 1878. The arc lamp was replaced in 1880 by Joseph Swans incandescent lamps in what Swan considered "the first proper installation" of electric lighting. Armstrong knew Swan well and had chaired the presentation of Swans new lamps to the Literary and Philosophical Society of Newcastle upon Tyne. Cragside was thus the "first (house) in the world to be lit by electricity derived from water power".</p><br>
<p>The use of electricity to run the houses appliances and internal systems made Cragside an early smart home; one of the first private residences to use incandescent lighting, a dishwasher, a vacuum cleaner and a washing machine, Cragside was "the place where modern living began". The spits in the kitchen were also powered by hydraulics. The conservatory contained a self-watering system for the pot plants, which turned on water-powered revolving stands. Telephony was also introduced, both between the rooms in the house, and between the house and other buildings on the estate. A plaque at Bamburgh Castle, Armstrongs other residence on the Northumbrian coast, records that his development of these new automated technologies "emancipated... much of the world from household drudgery". The generators, which also provided power for the farm buildings on the estate, were constantly extended and improved to meet the increasing electrical demands in the house. The 2006 regeneration project included extensive rewiring. A new screw turbine was installed in 2014; it can provide 12 kW, supplying around 10 per cent of the propertys electricity consumption. The new system uses a 17 m-long Archimedes screw.</p><br>
<h2>Grounds and estate</h2><br>
<p>Cragside, named after Cragend Hill above the house, is surrounded by an extensive rock garden, with a collection of rhododendrons, one of which is named after Lady Armstrong, who made a considerable contribution to the design and construction of the gardens, and large plantings of mostly coniferous trees. Among these is the tallest Scots pine in Britain, at a height of 131ft (40m). Over one hundred years after their planting, Jill Franklin wrote that, "the great, dark trees form a protective barrier to (Armstrongs) home". Armstrong bought land continuously after the purchase of the original site and by the 1880s the gardens and grounds comprised some 1,700 acres, with the wider estate, including Armstrongs agricultural holdings, extending to 15,000 acres, according to Henrietta Healds 2012 biography of Armstrong, and to over 16,000 acres according to the historian David Cannadine. David Dougan records the traditional claim that Armstrong planted over seven million trees in the gardens and parkland. The estate provides sanctuary for "some of the last red squirrels remaining in Britain". The glen north-west of the house is spanned by an iron bridge, crossing the Debden Burn, constructed to Armstrongs design at his Elswick Works in the 1870s. It is a Grade II* listed structure and was restored by the Trust, and reopened to the public, in 2008–2009. The gardens themselves are listed Grade I, and a number of the architectural and technological structures have their own historic listings. The Clock Tower, which regulated life on the estate, dates from the time of the construction of the shooting lodge, and may have been designed by the same architect. It is not by Shaw. It is possible that Armstrong himself may have designed the clock. The formal gardens, where Armstrong&#39;s great greenhouses stood and which were long separated from the main estate, have now been acquired by the Trust.</p><br>
<h2>Media appearances</h2><br>
<p>Cragside has featured in an Open University Arts Foundation Course, Jonathan Meadess documentary series Abroad Again in Britain, BBC Ones Britains Hidden Heritage, and Glorious Gardens from above, and ITVs series Inside the National Trust. The 2017 film, The Current War, was partly filmed at the estate.</p><br>
<h2>Footnotes</h2><br>
<p>Fairhaven  was founded in the late 1880s, but about two decades later it became part of the City of Bellingham, Washington, United States.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The Fairhaven area is situated on the south side of Bellingham, and borders Bellingham Bay on the west and Western Washington University on the northeast.</p><br>
<p>Since 1989 Fairhaven has been the southernmost terminus of the Alaska Marine Highway System, Alaskas state run ferry system. The Bellingham Cruise Terminal is also the departure point for summer passenger ferry service to the San Juan Islands and Victoria, British Columbia, Canada operated by Victoria/San Juan Cruises. Nearby is Fairhaven Station, a small transportation hub which serves as Bellinghams Amtrak Cascades station stop as well as the Greyhound bus depot. Connections can be made to local taxis or local transit. Whatcom Transportation Authority recently upgraded Fairhaven&#39;s bus service to every 15 minutes as part of its.</p><br>
<p>Fairhaven also plays outdoor movies every weekend during the summer at the Pickford Outdoor Cinema in Fairhaven&#39;s historical district.</p><br>
<h3>Historical district</h3><br>
<p>In the center of the Fairhaven area is the Fairhaven Historical District, which features a seasonal farmers market as well as numerous restaurants and shops. The district is a popular tourist destination. All newly constructed buildings are required to conform in outward appearance to the communitys traditional 19th-century style as defined by.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>First arriving in the area in 1854, Daniel J. Harris bought property along the coast and founded the town of Fairhaven in 1883. By 1889, he had sold all his interests to developers such as Nelson Bennett and C. X. Larrabee, who were intent on building Fairhaven into a major city on the scale of Seattle or Tacoma.</p><br>
<p>Fairhaven, like many other coastal Washington cities, competed with other Washington cities for the position of terminal city of the Great Northern Railroad, but that title ultimately fell on Seattle. During this period of competitiveness, which lasted from the late 1870s through mid-1880s, Fairhaven adopted its iconic 19th century style and took on an aesthetic appeal to architecture and design. Even after it was decided that Seattle would house the Great Northern Railroad terminal, population and aesthetically-minded construction continued to boom until the late 1890s. Fairhaven was officially incorporated on May 13, 1890. On October 27, 1903, citizens of Fairhaven and citizens of two neighboring cities on Bellingham Bay, Whatcom City and Sehome, voted to consolidate into one city named Bellingham. On December 28, 1903 the new city of Bellingham was officially established.</p><br>
<p>Sazan  is an island inside the Mediterranean Sea in southern Albania. It is the largest island in Albania and strategically located between the Strait of Otranto and the entrance to the Bay of Vlorë, forming the border between the Adriatic and Ionian Sea. The island has a surface area of 5.7 km&sup2; with a length of 4.8 km, width of 2 km and a coastline of about 15 km.</p><br>
<p>In addition to being the largest island in Albania, it is a military zone and sometimes in clear weather it may be seen by eye from the coast of Salento, Italy in the west. The island was open to the public in July 2015. 2,721.87 hectare of the territory of the island&#39;s surrounding marine area became part of the Karaburun-Sazan Marine Park in 2010.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island was known as Sason (Σάσων) in antiquity and was already mentioned by Polybius in a military episode taking place in 215 BC. Part of the Roman and Byzantine empires, it was captured by the Anjou of Naples in 1279, and was held by Albanian lords in the 14th century, often under the protection of Venice. The Ottoman Turks captured it around 1400, but it belonged to the Venetians by 1696. From then on, it follows the fate of the Ionian Islands, which were eventually given to Britain in 1815 as an autonomous republic under British protection.</p><br>
<p>In 1864 the island was ceded to Greece with the rest of the Ionian Islands, but not occupied, coming under de facto Ottoman control. It was not until the First Balkan War in 1912 that Greece landed soldiers on the island and formally claimed it. After the end of the Second Balkan War in 1913, Italy and Austria-Hungary pressed Greece to evacuate the southern part of modern Albania. Finding the island too unimportant to risk war with Italy, Greece evacuated it.</p><br>
<p>Italy in turn occupied it on 30 October 1914, and established a military commander on the island, which is called Saseno in Italian. This was later ratified on 26 April 1915 by the secret Treaty of London. After World War I, Albania formally ceded the island to Italy on 2 September 1920 as part of the Albano-Italian protocol. The island was part of Italy from 1920 until World War II: it was administratively part of Lagosta, inside the Italian Province of Zara. In those years the Italian authorities built a lighthouse and some naval fortifications, and populated the island with a few families of fishermen relocated from Apulia. The island was united to the Italian Governatorate of Dalmatia in 1941 during World War II and ceded to Albania on 10 February 1947, under the post-war peace treaty with Italy.</p><br>
<p>During the Cold War between the Soviet Union and the United States, Albania relied heavily on the Soviet Union. During that time, the Soviets built a Submarine Base on the island, as well as a Chemical/Biological weapons plant. To this day, many Soviet-era gas masks still can be found scattered around the valley of the island.</p><br>
<p>The island now is uninhabited but there is a small Italo-Albanian naval base, used mainly to counter contraband between southern Italy and Albania. In 2010, the island&#39;s surrounding sea waters, and those of adjacent Karaburun Peninsula were proclaimed a National Marine Park by the Albanian government.</p><br>
<h2>Environment</h2><br>
<h3>Geography and Climate</h3><br>
<p>Sazan is the largest island in the country and Albania&#39;s westernmost point. It is strategically located at the entrance to the Bay of Vlorë, in the eastern Strait of Otranto separating Italy from Albania. It is also located at the informal junction line of the Adriatic and Ionian Sea inside the Mediterranean Sea, which is just to the south according to international scientific bodies.</p><br>
<p>The island is composed of limestone rocks, which was formed during the Cretaceous period, while the eastern part is partially composed of terrigenic and cleistogenic deposits. It has four peaks, the highest standing at 344 m above sea level followed by two peaks in the center 331 m and 307 m, and the lowest with 228 m in the south of the island. Sazan has a coastline of about 15 km characterized by sandy beaches, capes, rocky cliffs and underwater fauna. Along its western shore the cliffs descending up to 40 m underwater. Capes of the island include the Bay of Paradise (Gjiri i Parajsës), Bay of St. Nicholas (Gjiri i Shënkollit), Cape of Shenkoll, Cape of Kallam, Cape of Jug, Cape of Pellumba, and Cape of Pulbardha.</p><br>
<p>The island has a climate unusual in Albania, due to its maritime location. It is not mediterranean but rather subtropical on account of its warm winters and hot summers. The climate and vegetation resemble those of the south of Crete in Greece, Tunisia and even parts of Egypt. The flora is different from that of the rest of Albania in that it is subtropical. A small tornado or watersprout was spotted along the coast coming inland in August 2002.</p><br>
<h3>Flora and Fauna</h3><br>
<p>Biogeographically, Sazan Island falls within the Illyrian deciduous forests terrestrial ecoregion of the Palearctic Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub. Due to the combination of southern geographic latitude and high altitude and as well the variation of climate, geological and hydrological conditions have contributed to the formation of an unique flora inside the island.</p><br>
<p>The variety of flora and vegetation can be explained by its strategically position between the western and eastern Mediterranean Sea. The island is home to 435 species (419 indigenous) of vascular plants, or 8.2% of Albania&#39;s entire vascular flora. There are only a endemic (Limonium anfractum) and 3 subendemic (Centaurea pawlowski, Scutellaria rupestris and Verbascum guicciardini) plants. The varied relief creates various ecological environments for plants, further diversified by the dominant rock types which form siliceous and calcareous terrain on the territory of the park. The rocky shores and limestone sea cliffs on the southern corners of Sazan are home to numerous halophile species such as lotus cytisoides and limonium anfractum. The forests of Sazan are generally composed of shrubs, sclerophyll forests with holm oak, deciduous forests with hophornbeam and south european flowering ash.</p><br>
<p>Due to its specific topography, climatic, hydrological and geological conditions, the island is characterized by housing a unique vegetation and biodiversity. The fauna is represented by 15 species of mammals, 39 species of birds, 8 species of reptiles, 1 species of amphibia and as well as 122 species of invertebrates. In addition to the 15 species of mammals, 8 of them are bats; among the most common are the black rat, common pipistrelle, and soprano pipistrelle. The bird species in Sazan with high conservation value include, 23 songbirds, 5 bird of preys, 3 pigeons, and 3 swifts.</p><br>
<p>The amphibians are represented by 1 of which include the green toad nesting in the wet deciduous forests and the forest streams. There are 8 reptile species. The mediterranean house gecko, testudo hermanni boettgeri, balkan pond turtle, sheltopusik, blue-throated keeled lizard, balkan wall lizard, montpellier snake and balkan whip snake are present in most rocky, and wet natural habitats throughout the island.</p><br>
<p>There are between 122 identified species, including 113 insects, but their actual number is estimated to be higher. Among the insects are 40 are beetles, 16 butterflies, 22 heteroptera, 20 orthoptera, 5 dragonflies and 10 hymenoptera.</p><br>
<p>The St. Francois Mountains in southeast Missouri are a range of Precambrian igneous mountains rising over the Ozark Plateau. This range is one of the oldest exposures of igneous rock in North America.</p><br>
<p>The name of the range is spelled out as Saint Francois Mountains in official GNIS sources, but it is sometimes misspelled in use as St. Francis Mountains to match the anglicized pronunciation of both the range and St. Francois County.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The name of the range derives from the St. Francis River, which originates in the St. Francois Mountains. The origin of the rivers name, which also was originally spelled "Francois" in the French manner, is unclear. The area, as part of the Louisiana district of New France, is near some of the earliest French settlements in Missouri where many French place names survive. Some sources conjecture that the name honors St. Francis of Assisi, the patron saint of the Franciscan order, but none of the regions early explorers were Franciscans. Others propose that Jacques Marquette, a French Jesuit, named the river when he explored its mouth in present-day Arkansas in 1673. Before his voyage down the Mississippi Marquette had spent some time at the mission of St. Francois Xavier, named for the Jesuit missionary Francis Xavier. The spelling of the river&#39;s name shifted from "Francois" to "Francis" in the early 20th century.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The St. Francois Mountains were formed by volcanic and intrusive activity 1.485 billion (1.485 x 10) years ago. By comparison, the Appalachians started forming about 460 million years ago, and the Rockies a mere 140 million years ago. When the Appalachians started forming, the St. Francois range was already twice as old as the Appalachians are today.</p><br>
<p>The intrusive rocks of the area are composed of three types: subvolcanic massifs, ring intrusions and central plutons.</p><br>
<p>The subvolcanic intrusives are similar in geochemistry to the associated rhyolite volcanics, which they intrude. They are granite with granophyric quartz, perthitic potassium feldspar, biotite and magnetite. They are intrusive into the rhyolites with development of fine grained granophyre at the contact. At depth they exhibit a coarse-grained rapakivi texture.</p><br>
<p>The subvolcanic granites are the most widespread igneous rocks and were thought to have been covered with extensive volcanics that have been removed by erosion.</p><br>
<p>The ring intrusives are high silica bodies which were intruded along ring faults associated with caldera collapse. Rock types include trachyandesite, trachyte, syenite and amphibole - biotite granite. They are commonly porphyritic.</p><br>
<p>The central plutons are highly evolved two mica (contain both biotite and muscovite) granites. Distinctive accessory minerals include: fluorite, topaz, apatite, spinel, allanite, sphene and cassiterite. They are enriched in tin, lithium, beryllium, rubidium, barium, yttrium, niobium, uranium, thorium and fluorine and are referred to as "tin granites&#39;. Their circular to oval shape in plan view is consistent with emplacement within resurgent calderas.</p><br>
<p>The exposed igneous rocks of the St. Francois are surrounded at depth by the slightly younger (~100 my) widely distributed igneous Spavinaw terrane. The Spavinaw rocks are intersected in drill core across southern Missouri, southern Illinois, northern Arkansas, southern Kansas and northeastern Oklahoma. The Spavinaw rocks occur in outcrop only near Spavinaw, Oklahoma. The rhyolites and ash flow tuffs of the Spavinaw are essentially identical to the volcanics of the St. Francois mountains (the Washington County volcanics).</p><br>
<p>The Saint Francois Mountains were formed by igneous activity, whereas most of the surrounding Ozarks are developed on Paleozoic sedimentary rocks as a dissected plateau. The localized vertical relief was caused by erosion following uplift during the Pennsylvanian and Permian periods produced by the Ouachita orogeny to the south. Elevations and strata dips in the Ozark structural dome generally radiate downward and outward away from the Saint Francois mountains.</p><br>
<p>These ancient mountains may be the only area in the American Midwest never to have been submerged, (as evidenced by the lack of marine fossils) existing as an island archipelago in the Paleozoic seas. Fossilized coral, the remains of ancient reefs, can be found among the rocks around the flanks of the mountains. These ancient reef complexes formed the localizing structures for the mineralizing fluids that resulted in the rich ore deposits of the area.</p><br>
<p>The igneous rocks of the Saint Francois Mts. are interpreted to be a series of caldera complexes, similar in scale to the Yellowstone caldera complex. However, it is debated whether the igneous activity was related to a hotspot, like Yellowstone, or whether it was related to an ancient subduction zone.</p><br>
<h3>Mineral resources</h3><br>
<p>The St. Francois Mountains are the center of the Lead Belt, a mining region yielding lead, iron, baryte, zinc, silver, manganese, cobalt, and nickel ores. Historic Mine La Motte near Fredericktown was the site of lead mining activity by the French as early as 1720. The area today accounts for over 90% of primary lead production in the United States.</p><br>
<p>Granite has been commercially quarried since 1869 in the vicinity of Elephant Rocks State Park, a tor with huge weathered granite boulders. The red architectural granite quarried in the area has been used in buildings in St. Louis and other areas in the country. It is currently marketed as Missouri Red monument stone.</p><br>
<h3>Structural features</h3><br>
<p>Hughes Mountain contains a good example of columnar jointing in igneous rhyolite, the same process that formed Devils Tower in Wyoming and the Giant&#39;s Causeway in Ireland. The columnar jointing in this area is called the</p><br>
<p>Devil&#39;s Honeycomb.</p><br>
<h2>Peaks</h2><br>
<p>Mountains in this range include; Taum Sauk Mountain, Bell Mountain, Buford Mountain, Proffit Mountain, Pilot Knob, Hughes Mountain, Goggin Mountain and Lead Hill Mountain. The elevations range from 500 feet to 1,772 feet (167 to 540 meters). Taum Sauk Mountain is the highest peak in the range, and the highest point in the state, with an elevation of 1772 ft. (540 m). In the southernmost reaches of the range is Clark&#39;s Mountain, elevation 1450 ft. (441 m), with the distinction of being the highest isolated point in the range and in the state; it reaches its top from surrounding terrain of about 900 ft. (182 m) in less than two miles (3.2 km). Black Mountain, in Madison County, has the highest rise in elevation from its base, along the St. Francis River (540 feet above sea level) to its summit (1,502 feet above sea level), a rise of just under 1,000 feet in elevation.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>Five Missouri state parks – Johnson&#39;s Shut-Ins, Taum Sauk Mountain, St. Joe, Sam A. Baker and Elephant Rocks – are located in this region. Public lands held by the Missouri Department of Conservation provide access for hiking, backpacking, hunting, fishing, canoeing, and boating. The Mark Twain National Forest contains additional public lands, including the Bell Mountain Wilderness. A section of the Ozark Trail winds through parts of the St. Francois Mountains, including a popular segment that crosses Taum Sauk and Proffit mountains.</p><br>
<p>The St. Francis River in this area is a whitewater stream in the spring when water levels are up, and it has hosted the Missouri Whitewater Championships annually since 1968.</p><br>
<p>Lassen Peak, commonly referred to as Mount Lassen, is the southernmost active volcano in the Cascade Range of the Western United States. Located in the Shasta Cascade region of Northern California, Lassen stands 3,500 ft  above the surrounding terrain and has a volume of 0.5 cu mi , making it one of the largest lava domes on Earth.</p><br>
<p>It arose on the destroyed northeastern flank of now-gone Mount Tehama, a stratovolcano at least 1,000 ft (300 m) higher than Lassen Peak. It is part of the Cascade Volcanic Arc, which stretches from southwestern British Columbia to northern California.</p><br>
<p>On May 22, 1915, a powerful explosive eruption at Lassen Peak devastated nearby areas, and spread volcanic ash as far as 200 mi to the east. This explosion was the most powerful in a series of eruptions from 1914 through 1917. Lassen Peak and Mount St. Helens were the only two volcanoes in the contiguous United States to erupt during the 20th century. Lassen Volcanic National Park was created in Tehama County, California, to preserve the devastated areas as they were, for future observation and study, and to preserve the nearby volcanic features.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Lassen Peak has the highest known winter snowfall amounts in California. There is an average annual snowfall of 660 in, and in some years, more than 1,000 in of snow falls at its base altitude of 8,250 ft at Lake Helen. The Lassen Peak area receives more precipitation (rain, sleet, hail, snow, etc.) than anywhere in the Cascade Range south of the Three Sisters volcanoes in Oregon.</p><br>
<p>The heavy annual snowfall on Lassen Peak creates fourteen permanent patches of snow on and around the mountain top, despite Lassen&#39;s rather modest elevation, but no glaciers.</p><br>
<p>Lightning has been known to strike the summit of the volcano frequently during summer thunderstorms.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>Lassen Peak is the southernmost in the chain of eighteen large volcanic peaks that stretch from southwestern British Columbia to northern California. These peaks were formed during the past 35 million years while the large Juan de Fuca tectonic plate and the much smaller Gorda plate to its south subducted under the North American plate. As the oceanic crust of the Juan de Fuca plate melts in the subduction zone, pools of magma form; these have uplifted the Cascade Range and led to periodic volcanic eruptions.</p><br>
<p>Roughly 27,000 years ago, Lassen Peak started to form as a mound-shaped dacite lava dome pushed its way through Tehama&#39;s destroyed north-eastern flank. As the lava dome grew it shattered overlaying rock, which formed a blanket of angular talus around the emerging steep-sided volcano. It likely resembled the nearby 1,100-year-old Chaos Crags. Lassen Peak reached its present height in a relatively short time, probably in just a few years.</p><br>
<p>From 25,000 to 18,000 years ago, during the last glacial period of the current Ice Age, the shape of Lassen Peak was significantly modified by glacial erosion. For example, the bowl-shaped depression on the volcano&#39;s northeastern flank, called a cirque, was eroded by a glacier that extended out 7 mi from the dome.</p><br>
<p>The most recent eruptive period of Lassen Peak began in 1914, and lasted for about seven years (see below). The most powerful of these eruptions was an explosion in 1915 that sent ash and steam in a 6 mi tall mushroom cloud, making it the largest recent eruption in the contiguous United States, until the explosion of Mount St. Helens in 1980. The region around Lassen Peak remains active, with mudpots, fumaroles, and hot springs demonstrating area activity. The areas around Lassen Peak and the nearby Mount Shasta are considered to be the most likely volcanoes in the Cascade Range to erupt during the coming decades and centuries.</p><br>
<h2>Human history</h2><br>
<p>Before the arrival of white settlers, the areas surrounding Lassen Peak, especially to its east, south, and southeast, were the traditional homeland of the northeastern Maidu American Indians.</p><br>
<p>Lassen Peak was named in honor of a Danish blacksmith, Peter Lassen, who guided immigrants past the peak to the Sacramento Valley during the 1830s. The trail that Lassen blazed never found generalized long-term use because it was considered unsafe. This trail was replaced by the Nobles Emigrant Trail, named for the guide William Nobles, which linked the Applegate Trail in northwestern Nevada to the northern part of the Sacramento Valley.</p><br>
<p>In 1864, Helen Tanner Brodt became the first white woman to reach the summit of Lassen Peak. A tarn lake on Lassen Peak is named "Lake Helen" in her honor.</p><br>
<p>Beginning in 1914 and lasting until 1921, Lassen Peak emerged from dormancy with a series of phreatic eruptions (steam explosions), dacite lava flows, and lahars (volcanic mud flows). There were two to four hundred volcanic eruptions during this period of activity. Because of the eruptive activity and the area&#39;s stark volcanic beauty, Lassen Peak, Cinder Cone, and the surrounding area were designated as the Lassen Volcanic National Park on August 9, 1916.</p><br>
<h2>Early 20th century eruptions</h2><br>
<h3>Initial rumblings (May 1914 through May 1915)</h3><br>
<p>On May 30, 1914, Lassen became volcanically active again after 27,000 years dormancy, when it was shaken by a steam explosion. Such steam blasts occur when molten magma rises toward the surface of a volcano and heats shallow-lying groundwater. The superheated water rises under pressure through cracks, and upon nearing the surface, it flashes into steam, which then vents explosively through the paths of least resistance. By mid-May 1915, more than 180 steam explosions had blown out a 1,000 ft wide crater near the summit of Lassen Peak.</p><br>
<p>Then the character of the eruption changed dramatically. On the evening of May 14, 1915, incandescent blocks of lava could be seen bouncing down the flanks of Lassen Peak from as far away as the town of Manton, 20 mi to the west. By the next morning, a growing dome of dacite lava (lava consisting of 63% to 68% silica) had filled the volcano&#39;s crater.</p><br>
<h3>Volcanic eruption of May 19–20, 1915</h3><br>
<p>Late on the evening of May 19, a large steam explosion fragmented the dome, creating a new crater at the summit of Lassen Peak. No new magma was ejected in this explosion, but glowing blocks of hot lava from the dome fell onto the summit and snow-covered upper flanks of Lassen Peak. These falling blocks launched a half mile (800 m) wide avalanche of snow and volcanic rock that roared 4 mi down the volcano&#39;s steep northeast flank and over a low ridge at Emigrant Pass into Hat Creek.</p><br>
<p>As the hot lava blocks broke into smaller fragments, the snow melted, generating a mudflow of volcanic materials, called a lahar. The bulk of this lahar was deflected northwestward at Emigrant Pass and flowed 7 mi down Lost Creek. Even after coming to rest, both the avalanche and lahar released huge volumes of water, flooding the lower Hat Creek Valley during the early morning hours of May 20. The lahar and flood destroyed six mostly not-yet-occupied summer ranch houses. The few people in these houses escaped with minor injuries.</p><br>
<p>Also during the night of May 19–20, dacite lava somewhat more fluid than that which erupted on the night of May 14–15 welled up into and filled the new crater at Lassen&#39;s summit, spilled over low spots on its rim, and flowed 1,000 ft down the steep west and northeast flanks of the volcano.</p><br>
<h3>Climactic eruption of May 22, 1915</h3><br>
<p>Then at 4:20 p.m. on May 22, after two quiet days, Lassen exploded in a powerful eruption (referred to as "the Great Explosion") that blasted volcanic ash, rock fragments, and pumice high into the air. This created the larger and deeper of the two craters seen near the summit of the volcano today. A huge column of volcanic ash and gas rose more than 30,000 ft into the air and was visible from as far as Eureka, 150 mi to the west, on the Pacific Coast.</p><br>
<p>Pumice falling onto the northeastern slope of Lassen Peak generated a high-speed avalanche of hot ash, pumice, rock fragments, and gas, called a pyroclastic flow, that swept down the side of the volcano, devastating a 3 square miles area. The pyroclastic flow rapidly incorporated and melted snow in its path. The water from the melted snow transformed the flow into a highly fluid lahar that followed the path of the lahar of May 19–20, and it rushed nearly 10 mi down "Lost Creek" to the Old Station. This new lahar released a large volume of water that flooded the lower Hat Creek Valley a second time.</p><br>
<p>The powerful climactic eruption of May 22 also swept away the northeast lobe of the lava flow extruded two days earlier. The eruption produced smaller mudflows on all flanks of Lassen Peak, deposited a layer of volcanic ash and pumice traceable for 25 mi to the northeast, and rained fine ash at least as far away as Winnemucca, Nevada, 200 mi to the east. Together, these events created a devastated area, which is still sparsely populated by trees due to the low nutrient level and high porosity of the soil.</p><br>
<h3>Later volcanic activity</h3><br>
<p>For several years after the large eruption in 1915, spring snowmelt water percolating down into Lassen Peak triggered steam explosions, an indication that magma beneath the surface of the volcano remained quite hot. Vigorous steam explosions in May 1917 blasted out the second of the two craters that are now seen near the northwest corner of the volcano&#39;s summit. The two older craters were buried.</p><br>
<p>Steam vents could be found in the area of these craters into the 1950s, but their activity gradually waned, and they are difficult to locate today. Since then, the United States Geological Survey, in cooperation with the National Park Service, has been monitoring Lassen Peak and other volcanic and geothermal areas in the park.</p><br>
<h3>Film</h3><br>
<p>Film made of the 1915–1917 eruptions was rediscovered and published in 2015 by the Shasta Historical Society.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing routes</h2><br>
<p>As the second-tallest volcano in Northern California, trailing only Mount Shasta, Lassen Peak is frequently visited by climbers and hikers. The mountain can be climbed year-round. The most popular climbing route in the warmer months is the Lassen Peak Trail, a 5-mile round trip hike that ascends approximately 2,000 feet from the trailhead at 8,500 feet to the summit.</p><br>
<p>Winter climbs on the mountain can involve longer approaches due to road closures and more extreme conditions due to the heavy snowfall the peak typically receives.</p><br>
<p>Chaos Crags is the youngest group of lava domes in Lassen Volcanic National Park, California, having been formed as five dacite domes 1,100-1,000 years ago. The cluster of domes is located north of Lassen Peak.</p><br>
<p>From the base of the crags and extending toward the northwest corner of the park is Chaos Jumbles, a cold rock avalanche which undermined Chaos Crags&#39; northwest slope 300 years ago.</p><br>
<p>Riding on a cushion of compressed air (see sturzstrom), the rock debris traveled at about 100 mi/h, flattened the forest before it, and dammed Manzanita Creek, forming Manzanita Lake.</p><br>
<p>In 1974 the National Park Service took the advice of the USGS and closed the visitor center and accommodations at Manzanita Lake. The USGS stated that these buildings would be in the way of a rockslide from Chaos Crags if an earthquake or volcanic eruption occurred in the area.</p><br>
<p>In 2011, twenty prefab cabins were reinstalled in the Manzanita Lake Campground. It had been determined in the 1980s that the rockslide danger had been overstated by the USGS, and therefore, the cabins were reintroduced to the park for nightly rental.</p><br>
<p>Cinder Cone is a cinder cone volcano in Lassen Volcanic National Park . It is located about 10 mi northeast of Lassen Peak and provides an excellent view of Brokeoff Mountain, Lassen Peak, and Chaos Crags.</p><br>
<p>The cone was built to a height of 750 ft above the surrounding area and spread ash over 30 square miles. Then, like many cinder cones, it was snuffed out when several basalt lava flows erupted from its base. These flows, called the Fantastic Lava Beds, spread northeast and southwest, and dammed creeks, first creating Snag Lake on the south and then Butte Lake to the north. Butte Lake is fed by water from Snag Lake seeping through the lava beds. Nobles Emigrant Trail goes around Snag Lake and follows the edge of the lava beds.</p><br>
<p>Its age has been controversial since the 1870s, when many people thought it was only a few decades old. Later, the cone and associated lava flows were thought to have formed about 1700 or during a 300-year- long series of eruptions ending in 1851. Recent studies by USA Geological Survey (USGS) scientists, working in cooperation with the National Park Service to better understand volcano hazards in the Lassen area, have firmly established that Cinder Cone was formed during two eruptions that occurred in the 1650s.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>Cinder Cone is a 700 ft high cone of loose scoria. Scoria forms when blobs of gas-charged lava are thrown into the air during an eruption and cool in flight, falling as dark volcanic rock containing cavities created by trapped gas bubbles. The summit of Cinder Cone has a crater with a double rim (photo), probably created by fluctuating eruptive activity late in its formation. The cone also has several associated blocky lava flows, and a related, widespread ash deposit identifiable for 8 to 10 mi from the cone. There are actually two scoria cones at Cinder Cone—the remnants of a nearly completely buried earlier cone can be seen on the larger cone&#39;s south side. Much of the earlier cone was probably destroyed by lava flows erupting from its base. Blocks of red, cemented scoria within the Painted Dunes lava flows (photo) are pieces of this earlier cone, which were carried away by the flowing lava.</p><br>
<p>During its formation, the composition of the molten rock (magma) feeding the eruption changed from basaltic andesite to andesite and then back to basaltic andesite, but with a higher titanium content. Chemically, basaltic andesites are volcanic rocks containing 53 to 57% silica (SiO2), and andesites are those containing 57 to 63% silica. Though chemically distinct, the lava flows and scorias at Cinder Cone are similar in appearance. They are dark, fine-grained rocks, containing a few visible crystals of the minerals olivine, plagioclase, and quartz.</p><br>
<p>The earlier erupted group of volcanic deposits at Cinder Cone, which are relatively titanium-poor, consist of the older scoria cone, the Old Bench flow, the two Painted Dunes flows, and the lower part of the widespread ash layer. The later erupted, relatively titanium-rich group consists of the large, younger scoria cone, the upper part of the ash layer, and the two Fantastic Lava Beds flows. Flow 2 of the Fantastic Lava Beds (see geologic map) is the flow that everyone but Diller thought had been erupted in 1851. The ash on the Old Bench and Painted Dunes lava flows is brightly oxidized because it fell on the lava flows when they were still hot. This oxidized ash belongs to the same compositional group as the Fantastic Lava Beds flows, the last flows erupted at Cinder Cone. All the volcanic materials at Cinder Cone therefore represent a single eruptive sequence that probably spanned no more than a few months.</p><br>
<p>An unusual characteristic of the Fantastic Lava Beds is the presence of anomalous quartz crystal xenocrysts (foreign bodies in igneous rock). Geologists think that they were picked up from wall rocks by the lava as it moved toward the surface. The lava and pyroclastics of Cinder Cone and the Fantastic Lava Beds are made of basaltic andesite to andesite.</p><br>
<h2>Human history</h2><br>
<h3>Beginnings of a controversy</h3><br>
<p>After traveling through Northern California in the spring of 1851, two gold prospectors reported seeing an erupting volcano that “threw up fire to a terrible height.” They further claimed that they walked 10 miles over rocks so hot that their boots were entirely destroyed.</p><br>
<p>In the early 1870s, H. W. Harkness, a medical doctor and observant amateur scientist from San Francisco, California, visited and described the Cinder Cone area. He was impressed by the apparent youthfulness of the volcanic features, and described a number of lines of evidence that he interpreted to mean that Cinder Cone was only about 25 years old.</p><br>
<p>After presenting his findings at a meeting of the California Academy of Sciences, Harkness was contacted by Henry Chapman, an Academy member, who told him of hearing the gold prospectors tell their story. He was also contacted by several others who claimed to have witnessed a volcanic eruption in the Lassen area around 1851, including a O. M. Wozencraft. Harkness thought that all these tales of volcanic activity might be related to an eruption of Cinder Cone.</p><br>
<p>The circumstances surrounding these reports are somewhat obscure and inconsistent. Several reports of “volcanic eruptions” in the Lassen area had appeared in Northern California newspapers in the 1850s, but Harkness was probably unaware of them. In the earliest of these, published in the August 21, 1850, edition of the Daily Pacific News, a San Francisco newspaper, an unnamed observer reported seeing an erupting volcano with “burning lava still running down the sides.” In 1859, the San Francisco Times printed an article in which Wozencraft and a companion were purported to have seen, from a position somewhere west of the Lassen area, flames in the sky that they attributed to a volcanic eruption. This article was widely reprinted and popularized in other papers, but no specific date or location was given for their sighting. The Shasta Republican noted on several occasions in April 1859 (referring to Wozencraft) that the Dr.’s imagination is far more active than any volcano in our County or State. It was in Harkness’ 1875 report that the date of Wozencraft’s observation is first mentioned to be the winter of 1850–1851.</p><br>
<h3>Early geologic studies</h3><br>
<p>The first geologist to study Cinder Cone was Joseph Diller, who was among the first USGS scientists to study volcanoes. Diller made careful observations of Cinder Cone and interviewed many Native Americans and European trappers and settlers who were in the Lassen region in 1850. None of them could recall witnessing any volcanic activity in the area. Diller knew that an “emigrant road” (the Nobles Trail), used by settlers coming to California in the early 1850s, passes close to the base of Cinder Cone. He spoke with several people who had “crossed the trail” in 1853. They noted that a large, solitary willow bush (Salix scouleriana) near the summit of Cinder Cone was “as large then as now.” Today, more than a century after Diller’s interviews, this bush is still alive and little changed.</p><br>
<p>Because the “Scouler willow” at the summit of Cinder Cone was already mature in 1853, Diller concluded it was extremely unlikely that an eruption could have occurred there in the winter of 1850. He also noted that trees rooted in volcanic ash erupted from the cone were about 200 years old and that the oldest trees on related lava flows were about 150 years old. Diller believed he recognized two eruptive sequences, which each produced lava flows. However, he thought that only the older eruption was explosive, creating Cinder Cone and the ash deposits. In regard to the explosive eruption, he concluded that “Whatever may be the historical testimony as to the time of the eruption, the geologic evidence clearly demonstrates that it must have occurred long before the beginning of the present century” (before 1800). Diller therefore speculated that the explosive eruption had occurred between about 1675 and 1700 and that the younger, quiet eruption was “certainly” sometime before 1840.</p><br>
<p>In the mid-1930s, USGS volcanologist R.H. Finch attempted to improve on Diller’s work. On the basis of other studies done at Cinder Cone, Finch thought (1) that there had been at least five separate lava-flow events, as suggested by crude, experimental magnetic measurements; (2) that the youngest lava flow was extruded in 1851, accepting Harkness’ (1875) historical “evidence” and ignoring Diller’s interviews and conclusions; and (3) that there had been at least two distinct explosive eruptions of the cone. Using these assumptions and tree-ring measurements, Finch proposed a complex and detailed eruptive chronology for Cinder Cone that spanned nearly 300 years. From measurements of the rings of one particular tree, which showed two periods of slow growth, he thought that the two explosive eruptions occurred in 1567 and 1666. He also concluded that the five lava flows were extruded in 1567, 1666, 1720, 1785, and 1851.</p><br>
<h3>New geologic studies</h3><br>
<p>After Finch published his work in 1937, few additional studies were done on volcano hazards in the Lassen area. However, that changed after the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington. As a result, the USGS began reevaluating the risks posed by other potentially active volcanoes in the Cascade Range, including those in Lassen Volcanic National Park. Since that time, USGS scientists have been working in cooperation with the National Park Service to better understand volcano hazards in the Lassen area. As part of this work, the history of Cinder Cone has been reexamined. Most of the features of Cinder Cone have changed little since Harkness first described them in the 1870s, but all of the assumptions on which Finch based his conclusions have now been shown to be incorrect.</p><br>
<p>Through new field and laboratory work and by reinterpreting data from previous studies, USGS scientists have shown that the entire eruptive sequence at Cinder Cone represents a single continuous event. Because the orientation of the Earth’s magnetic field in northern California during the 1850s is well known and is different from the remnant magnetizations at Cinder Cone, the lava flows there could not have been erupted in 1850 or 1851. Also, there are no discernible differences in the magnetic orientation recorded by any of the Cinder Cone lava flows, and so the flows had to be extruded during an interval of less than 50 years.</p><br>
<p>Although paleomagnetic evidence can be used to rule out the 1850s as the age of Cinder Cone, it does not provide an actual age for its eruption. By measuring levels of carbon-14 in samples of wood from trees killed by the eruption of Cinder Cone, USGS scientists obtained a radiocarbon date for the eruption of between 1630 and 1670. Such a date is also consistent with the remnant magnetization preserved in the lava flows. The series of eruptions that produced the volcanic deposits at Cinder Cone were complex and are by no means completely understood. However, the new studies done by USGS scientists refute the purported accounts of an eruption in the early 1850s and confirm Diller’s (1891, 1893) interpretation that Cinder Cone erupted in the latter half of the 17th century. They also suggest that the 1666 tree-ring date proposed by Finch (1937) for his “second” explosive eruption at Cinder Cone might actually date the entire eruptive sequence.</p><br>
<p>The Holy Isle  is one of a number of islands in the United Kingdom which go under the name "Holy Island". It is located in the Firth of Clyde off the west coast of central Scotland, inside Lamlash Bay on the larger island of Arran. The island is around 3 km long and around 1 km wide. Its highest point is the hill Mullach Mòr.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The island has a long history as a sacred site, with a spring or holy well held to have healing properties, the hermit cave of 6th century monk St Molaise, and evidence of a 13th-century monastery. An old Gaelic name for the island was Eilean MoLaise, Molaise&#39;s Island; this is the origin (via Elmolaise and Limolas) of "Lamlash", the name of the village on Arran that faces Holy Island.</p><br>
<p>Some runic writing is to be found on the roof of St Molaise&#39;s cave and a Viking fleet sheltered between Arran and Holy Isle before the Battle of Largs.</p><br>
<p>In 1549, Dean Monro wrote of the "little ile callit the yle of Molass, quherin there was foundit by Johne, Lord of the iles, ane monastry of friars, which is decayit."</p><br>
<h2>Present day</h2><br>
<p>The island is now owned by the Samyé Ling Buddhist Community, who belong to the Kagyu school of Tibetan Buddhism. The settlements on the island include the Centre for World Peace and Health, founded by Lama Yeshe Losal Rinpoche, on the north of the island. This is an environmentally designed residential centre for courses and retreats which extends the former farm house. It has solar water heating and a reed-bed sewage treatment system. The approach from the ferry jetty is decorated with Tibetan flags and stupas. On the southern end of the island lives a community of nuns who are undertaking three year retreats.</p><br>
<p>The remainder of the island is treated as a nature reserve with wild Eriskay ponies, Saanen goats, Soay sheep and the replanting of native trees. The rare Rock Whitebeam tree is found on the island, an essential link in the evolution of the Arran Whitebeam species, Sorbus arranensis, Sorbus pseudofennica and Sorbus pseudomeinichii. These are indigenous and unique to Arran.</p><br>
<p>There is a regular ferry service from Lamlash, and the island is popular with holiday makers staying on Arran. The usually resident population was recorded as 31 in 2011, an increase from 13 in 2001.</p><br>
<p>The South Downs are a range of chalk hills that extends for about 260 square miles across the south-eastern coastal counties of England from the Itchen Valley of Hampshire in the west to Beachy Head, near Eastbourne, East Sussex, in the east. The Downs are bounded on the northern side by a steep escarpment, from whose crest there are extensive views northwards across the Weald. The South Downs National Park forms a much larger area than the chalk range of the South Downs and includes large parts of the Weald.</p><br>
<p>The South Downs are characterised by rolling chalk downland with close-cropped turf and dry valleys, and are recognised as one of the most important chalk landscapes in England. The range is one of the four main areas of chalk downland in southern England.</p><br>
<p>The South Downs are relatively unpopulated compared to South East England as a whole, although in Sussex there has been large-scale urban encroachment onto the chalk downland by major seaside resorts, including most notably Brighton and Hove.</p><br>
<p>The South Downs have been inhabited since ancient times and at periods the area has supported a large population, particularly during Romano-British times. There is a rich heritage of historical features and archaeological remains, including defensive sites, burial mounds and field boundaries. Within the South Downs Environmentally Sensitive Area there are thirty-seven Sites of Special Scientific Interest, including large areas of chalk grassland.</p><br>
<p>The grazing of sheep on the thin, well-drained chalk soils of the Downs over many centuries and browsing by rabbits resulted in the fine, short, springy turf, known as old chalk grassland, that has come to epitomise the South Downs today. Until the middle of the 20th century, an agricultural system operated by downland farmers known as sheep-and-corn farming underpinned this: the sheep (most famously the Southdown breed) of villagers would be systematically confined to certain corn fields to improve their fertility with their droppings and then they would be let out onto the downland to graze. However, starting in 1940 with government measures during World War II to increase domestic food production and continuing into the 1950s, much grassland was ploughed up for arable farming, fundamentally changing the landscape and ecology, with the loss of much biodiversity. As a result, while old chalk grassland accounted for 40-50% of the eastern Downs before the war, only 3-4% survives. This and development pressures from the surrounding population centres ultimately led to the decision to create the South Downs National Park, which came into full operation on 1 April 2011, to protect and restore the Downs.</p><br>
<p>The South Downs have also been designated as a National Character Area (NCA 125) by Natural England. It is bordered by the Hampshire Downs, the Wealden Greensand, the Low Weald and the Pevensey Levels to the north and the South Hampshire Lowlands and South Coast Plain to the south.</p><br>
<p>The downland is an extremely popular recreational destination, particularly for walkers, horseriders and mountain bikers. A long distance footpath and bridleway, the South Downs Way, follows the entire length of the chalk ridge from Winchester to Eastbourne, complemented by many interconnecting public footpaths and bridleways.</p><br>
<h2>Toponymy</h2><br>
<p>The term downs is from Old English dūn, meaning hill. The word acquired the sense of elevated rolling grassland around the fourteenth century. These hills are prefixed south to distinguish them from another chalk escarpment, the North Downs, which runs roughly parallel to them about 30 mi away on the northern edge of the Weald.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<p>The South Downs are formed from a thick band of chalk which was deposited during the Cretaceous Period around sixty million years ago within a shallow sea which extended across much of northwest Europe. The rock is composed of the microscopic skeletons of plankton which lived in the sea, hence its colour. The chalk has many fossils, and bands of flint occur throughout the formation. The Chalk is divided into the Lower, Middle and Upper Chalk, a thin band of cream-coloured nodular chalk known as the Melbourn Rock marking the boundary between the Lower and Middle units.</p><br>
<p>The strata of southeast England, including the Chalk, were gently folded during a phase of the Alpine Orogeny to produce the Weald-Artois Anticline, a dome-like structure with a long east-west axis. Erosion has removed the central part of the dome, leaving the north-facing escarpment of the South Downs along its southern margin with the south-facing chalk escarpment of the North Downs as its counterpart on the northern side, as shown on the diagram. Between these two escarpments the anticline has been subject to differential erosion so that geologically distinct areas of hills and vales lie in roughly concentric circles towards the centre; these comprise the Greensand Ridge, most prominent on the north side of the Weald, where it includes Leith Hill, the highest hill in south-east England, the low-lying clay vales of the Low Weald, formed of less resistant Weald Clay, and finally the more highly resistant sandstones of the High Weald at the centre of the anticline, whose elevated forest ridge includes most notably Ashdown Forest.</p><br>
<p>The chalk, being porous, allows water to soak through; as a result there are many winterbournes along the northern edge.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The South Downs are a long chalk escarpment that stretches for over 70 mi, rising from the valley of the River Itchen near Winchester, Hampshire, in the west to Beachy Head near Eastbourne, East Sussex, in the east. Behind the steep north-facing scarp slope, the gently inclined dip slope of undulating chalk downland extends for a distance of up to 7 mi southwards. Viewed from high points further north in the High Weald and on the North Downs, the scarp of the South Downs presents itself as a steep wall that bounds the horizon, with its grassland heights punctuated with clumps of trees (such as Chanctonbury Ring).</p><br>
<p>In the west, the chalk ridge of the South Downs merges with the North Downs to form the Hampshire Downs. In the east, the escarpment terminates at the English Channel coast between Seaford and Eastbourne, where it produces the spectacular white cliffs of Seaford Head, the cross-section of dry valleys known as the Seven Sisters and Beachy Head, the highest chalk sea cliff in Britain at 162 m above sea level.</p><br>
<p>The South Downs may be said to have three main component parts: the East Hampshire Downs, the Western Downs and the Eastern Downs, together with the river valleys that cut across them and the land immediately below them, the scarpfoot. The Western and Eastern Downs are often collectively referred to as the Sussex Downs. The Western Downs, lying west of the River Arun, are much more wooded, particularly on the scarp face, than the Eastern Downs. The bare Eastern Downs – the only part of the chalk escarpment to which, until the late 19th century, the term "South Downs" was usually applied – have come to epitomise, in literature and art, the South Downs as a whole and which have been the subject matter of such celebrated writers and artists as Rudyard Kipling (the "blunt, bow-headed, whale-backed downs") and Eric Ravilious.</p><br>
<p>Four river valleys cut through the South Downs, namely those of the rivers Arun, Adur, Ouse and Cuckmere, providing a contrasting landscape. Chalk aquifers and to a lesser extent winterbourne streams supply much of the water required by the surrounding settlements. Dew ponds, artificial ponds for watering livestock, are a characteristic feature on the downland.</p><br>
<p>The highest point on the South Downs is Butser Hill, whose summit is 270 m above sea level. The plateau-like top of this vast, irregularly shaped hill, which lies just south of Petersfield, Hampshire, was in regular use through prehistory. It has been designated as a National Nature Reserve.</p><br>
<p>Within the boundary of the South Downs National Park, which includes parts of the western Weald to the north of the South Downs, the highest point is Blackdown, West Sussex, which rises to 280 m above sea level. However, Blackdown geologically is not part of the South Downs but instead forms part of the Greensand Ridge on the Weald&#39;s western margins.</p><br>
<p>A list of those points on the South Downs above 700 ft, going from west to east, is given below.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological evidence has revealed that the Downs have been inhabited and utilised for thousands of years. Neolithic flint mines such as Cissbury, burial mounds such as the Devils Jumps and Devils Humps, and hill forts like Chanctonbury Ring are strong features in the landscape.</p><br>
<p>It has been estimated that the tree cover of the Downs was cleared over 3000 years ago, and the present closely grazed turf is the result of continual grazing by sheep.</p><br>
<h2>National park</h2><br>
<p>Proposals to create a national park for the South Downs date back to the 1940s. However, it was not until 1999 that the idea received firm government support. After a public enquiry that took place between 2003 and 2009, the government announced its decision to make the South Downs a national park on 31 March 2009. The South Downs National Park finally came into operation on 1 April 2011. Within its boundary are included not only the South Downs proper but also part of the western Weald, a geologically and ecologically quite different district.</p><br>
<p>The South Downs National Park has replaced two Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB)s: East Hampshire AONB and Sussex Downs AONB. During the enquiry process a number of boundary questions were considered, so that the National Park contains areas not in the former AONBs, and vice versa.</p><br>
<h2>National Nature Reserves</h2><br>
<p>The South Downs contain a number of National Nature Reserves (NNRs).</p><br>
<p>The NNRs on the Sussex Downs comprise Kingley Vale, near Chichester, said by Natural England to contain one of the finest yew forests in Europe, including a grove of ancient trees which are among the oldest living things in Britain (the reserve is also one of the most important archaeological sites in southern England, with 14 Scheduled Ancient Monuments); Castle Hill, between Brighton and Lewes, an important example of ancient, traditionally managed grassland; Lewes Downs (Mount Caburn), a traditionally managed chalk downland (and also an important archaeological site); and Lullington Heath, on the northern fringe of Friston Forest north-west of Eastbourne, one of the largest areas of chalk heath in Britain.</p><br>
<p>The NNRs on the East Hampshire Downs comprise Butser Hill, near Petersfield, a large area of chalk grassland on the highest point in the South Downs (a large area is also designated as a Scheduled Ancient Monument reflecting its historical significance, particularly in the Bronze and Iron Ages); Old Winchester Hill, a lowland grassland on the west and south facing scarp slopes of the Meon valley; and Beacon Hill, a high quality chalk grassland 5 km west of Old Winchester Hill.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism, leisure and sport</h2><br>
<p>In 1923 the Society of Sussex Downsmen (now the South Downs Society) was formed with the aim of protecting the area&#39;s unique landscape.</p><br>
<p>The South Downs are a popular area for ramblers with a network of over 2,000 mi of well-managed, well-signed and easily accessible trails. The principal bridleway, and longest of them, is the South Downs Way. The Monarch&#39;s Way, having originated at Worcester, crosses the South Downs and ends at Shoreham-by-Sea.</p><br>
<p>Sports undertaken on the Downs include paragliding, mountain-biking, horse riding and walking. The popular Beachy Head Marathon (formerly Seven Sisters Marathon), a hilly cross-country marathon, takes place each autumn on the eastern Downs, starting and finishing in Eastbourne. The South Downs Trail Marathon starts in the village of Slindon (near Arundel) and ends at the Queen Elizabeth Country Park (to the south of Petersfield.)</p><br>
<p>Longer events that take in the South Downs Way include a 100-mile running ultramarathon and mountain biking 75 mile night time race from Beachy Head to Queen Elizabeth Country Park.</p><br>
<h2>Landmarks</h2><br>
<p>Two of the landmarks on the Downs are the Long Man of Wilmington, a chalk carved figure, and Clayton Windmills. There is also a war memorial, The Chattri, dedicated to Indian soldiers who died in the Brighton area, having been brought there for treatment after being injured fighting on the Western Front in the First World War.</p><br>
<h2>South Downs in literature</h2><br>
<p>Rudyard Kipling who lived at Rottingdean described the South Downs as "Our blunt, bow-headed whale-backed Downs". Writing in 1920 in his poem The South Country, poet Hilaire Belloc describes the South Downs as "the great hills of the South Country". In On The South Coast, poet Algernon Charles Swinburne describes the South Downs as "the green smooth-swelling unending downs".</p><br>
<p>The naturalist-writer William Henry Hudson wrote that "during the whole fifty-three mile length from Beachy Head to Harting the ground never rises above a height of 850 feet, but we feel on top of the world".</p><br>
<p>Poet Francis William Bourdillon also wrote a poem "On the South Downs". The South Downs have been home to several writers including Jane Austen who lived at Chawton on the edge of the Downs in Hampshire. The Bloomsbury Group often visited Monk&#39;s House in Rodmell, the home of Virginia Woolf in the Ouse valley. Alfred, Lord Tennyson had a second home at Aldworth, on Blackdown; geologically part of the Weald, Blackdown lies north of the South Downs but is included in the South Downs National Park.</p><br>
<p>In the introduction to Arthur Conan Doyles short story collection "His Last Bow", Dr. Watson states that Sherlock Holmes has retired to a small farm upon the Downs near Eastbourne. In "His Last Bow" itself, Holmes states that he "lives and keeps bees upon the South Downs". Furthermore, the short story "The Lions Mane" is about a case which Holmes solves whilst living there.</p><br>
<p>The author Graham Greenes, first published novel, The Man Within (1929) is set largely on and around the South Downs. The books principal character, Andrews, travels by foot across the Downs to reach Lewes and attend the Assizes. Greene provides a detailed description of both the landscape and its feel.</p><br>
<p>Lake Biwa is the largest freshwater lake in Japan, located in Shiga Prefecture , northeast of the former capital city of Kyoto. Because of its proximity to the ancient capital, references to Lake Biwa appear frequently in Japanese literature, particularly in poetry and in historical accounts of battles.</p><br>
<h2>Name</h2><br>
<p>The name Biwako was established in the Edo period. There are various theories about the origin of the name Biwako, but it is generally believed to be so named because of the resemblance of its shape to that of a stringed instrument called the biwa. Kōsō, a learned monk of Enryaku-ji in the 14th century, gave a clue to the origin of the name Biwako in his writing: "The lake is the Pure land of the goddess Benzaiten because she lives on Chikubu Island and the shape of the lake is similar to that of the biwa, her favorite instrument."</p><br>
<p>The lake was formerly known as the Freshwater Sea or the Freshwater Sea Near the Capital. Later the pronunciation Awaumi changed to the modern Ōmi as in the name of Ōmi Province. The lake is also called "Little Grebe Lake" in literature.</p><br>
<h2>Area and use</h2><br>
<p>The area of this lake is about 670 km². Small rivers drain from the surrounding mountains into Lake Biwa, and its main outlet is the Seta River, which later becomes the Uji River, combining with the Katsura and Kizu to become the Yodo River and flows into the Seto Inland Sea at Osaka Bay.</p><br>
<p>It serves as a reservoir for the cities of Kyoto and Ōtsu and is a valuable resource for nearby textile industries. It provides drinking water for about 15 million people in the Kansai region. Lake Biwa is a breeding ground for freshwater fish, including trout, and for the pearl culture industry.</p><br>
<p>The Lake Biwa Canal, built in the late 1890s and later expanded during the Taishō period played a role of great importance in the rekindling of Kyoto&#39;s industrial life, after a steep decline following the transfer of the capital to Tokyo.</p><br>
<p>Lake Biwa is home to many popular beaches along the north-western shore, in particular, for example, Shiga Beach and Omi-Maiko. The Mizunomori Water Botanical Garden and The Lake Biwa Museum in Kusatsu are also of interest.</p><br>
<p>The Lake Biwa Marathon takes place in Otsu, the city at the southern end of the lake, annually since 1962.</p><br>
<h2>Natural history</h2><br>
<p>Lake Biwa is of tectonic origin and is one of the world&#39;s oldest lakes, dating to at least 4 million years ago. This long uninterrupted age has allowed for a notably diverse ecosystem to evolve in the lake. Naturalists have documented more than 1000 species and subspecies in the lake, including about 60 endemic. Lake Biwa is an important place for water birds. About 5,000 water birds visit Lake Biwa every year.</p><br>
<p>There are 46 native fish species and subspecies in the lake, including 11 species and 5 subspecies that are endemic or near-endemic. The endemic species are five cyprinids (Carassius cuvieri, Gnathopogon caerulescens, Ischikauia steenackeri, Opsariichthys uncirostris and Sarcocheilichthys biwaensis), a true loach (Cobitis magnostriata), two gobies (Gymnogobius isaza and an undescribed species of Rhinogobius), two silurid catfish (Silurus biwaensis and S. lithophilus) and a cottid (Cottus reinii). The Biwa trout is also endemic to the lake, but some maintain that it is a subspecies of the widespread masu salmon rather than a separate species. The remaining endemic fish are subspecies of Carassius auratus, Cobitis minamorii, Sarcocheilichthys variegatus and Squalidus (chankaensis) biwae.</p><br>
<p>Lake Biwa is also the home of a large number of molluscs, including 38 freshwater snails (19 endemic) and 16 bivalves (9 endemic).</p><br>
<p>Recently the biodiversity of the lake has suffered greatly due to the invasion of foreign fish, the black bass and the bluegill. Bluegill were presented to the Emperor and later freed in the lake as a food source for other fish. Black bass were introduced as a sport fish. In July 2009, a largemouth bass weighing 22 pounds, 4 ounces (about 10.09 kg) was caught in the lake by Manabu Kurita. It has been officially certified by the International Game Fish Association (IGFA) to tie the largemouth bass world record held solely by George Perry for 77 years.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>The Awazu site, a submerged shell-midden of Lake Biwa, is an important archaeological site of Jomon period. It goes back to the beginning of the Initial Jomon period (ca. 9300 BP). It lies near the southern end of Lake Biwa, close to Otsu City, at a depth of 2 to 3m from the bottom.</p><br>
<p>The site shows the use of plant and animal food resources by Jomon peoples. It also demonstrates the importance of nut consumption in this period.</p><br>
<p>Shell Midden No. 3 is dated to the Middle Jomon period. An abundance of horse chestnuts was uncovered here (c. 40% of the total estimated diet). This indicates that, by this later period, a sophisticated processing technology was mastered in order to remove the harmful tannic acid, and make this food safe for consumption.</p><br>
<p>Ishiyama is another such site of early Jomon period on Lake Biwa.</p><br>
<h2>Environmental legislation</h2><br>
<p>Various environmental laws cover Lake Biwa:</p><br>
<h3>Eutrophication prevention</h3><br>
<p>Legislation to prevent eutrophication was enacted in 1981 and first enforced on July 1, 1982; therefore, this day is called "Lake Biwa Day". The legislation established standards for the nitrogen and phosphorus levels for agricultural, industrial, and household water sources emptying into the lake. They also banned people from using and selling synthetic detergents which contain phosphorus.</p><br>
<h3>Wetlands protection</h3><br>
<p>The lake was designated as a UNESCO Ramsar Wetland (1993) in accordance with the Ramsar Convention. The object of this treaty is to protect and sensibly use internationally valuable wetlands. The Kushiro marsh (釧路湿原, Kushiro Shitsugen) in Japan is under this treaty now.</p><br>
<h3>Conservation of Reed Vegetation Zones</h3><br>
<p>Reed colonies on the shore form give Lake Biwa its characteristic scenery. The reeds play an important role in purifying water as well as providing habitat for birds and fish. At one time there were large areas of reeds along the shores of Lake Biwa, which local government surveys recently found to have halved in size due to encroaching development. This Shiga Ordinance for the Conservation of Reed Vegetation Zones to protect, grow, and utilize the reed beds has been in force since 1992.</p><br>
<h2>Image gallery</h2><br>
<p>The Blackwater Reservoir is a reservoir created behind a dam in the mountains above Kinlochleven, Lochaber, Highland, Scotland. At over 914 m long, the dam is the longest in the Highlands.</p><br>
<p>The hydroelectric scheme was constructed in the early 1900s for the British Aluminium Company (later: British Alcan) for the purpose of smelting aluminium and was designed by engineers Patrick Meik and Charles Meik. Chief assistant resident engineer was William Halcrow.</p><br>
<p>The dam, at 27 m high, was built at an elevation of over 305m in rugged and almost inaccessible terrain, and involved the construction of some 6 km of concrete aqueduct and nearly 13 km of steel pipe in total (four parallel pipelines).</p><br>
<p>The dam was built using hand tools, without the benefit of mechanical earth moving machinery, and has been described as the last major creation of the traditional navvy whose activities in the construction of canals and railways left an indelible mark on the British countryside.</p><br>
<p>The power house and aluminium smelting plant were situated in Kinlochleven, which is adjacent to the sea loch Loch Leven.</p><br>
<p>In recent years the smelting works has closed and has mostly been demolished albeit that a few buildings remain and have been given over to other uses, including a climbing wall which - unusually - has a refrigerated face so that people can practice ice climbing.</p><br>
<p>The power station now produces electricity for the aluminium smelter in Fort William, supplementing the supply from the Lochaber hydroelectric scheme. Any surplus energy is sold to the national grid for public supply. Consequently, the dam, penstocks and other works associated with it remain in use.</p><br>
<p>A number of workers lost their lives constructing the dam; their graves, which are marked by concrete markers, are close to the dam.</p><br>
<p>The Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts at Harvard University, in Cambridge, Massachusetts is the only building actually designed by Le Corbusier in the United States, and one of only two in the Americas . Le Corbusier designed it with the collaboration of Chilean architect Guillermo Jullian de la Fuente at his 35 rue de Sèvres studio; the on-site preparation of the construction plans was handled by the office of Josep Lluís Sert, then dean of the Harvard Graduate School of Design. He had formerly worked in Le Corbusier&#39;s atelier and had been instrumental in winning him the commission. The building was completed in 1962.</p><br>
<h2>Commission</h2><br>
<p>During the mid-1950s, the idea of creating a place for the visual arts at Harvard began to take shape. A new department dedicated to the visual arts was created, and the need for a building to house the new department arose. A budget was set for $1.3 million, and the proposal was included in a Harvard fundraising program. The project immediately elicited a response from St. Vrain Carpenter, an alumnus who supplied $1.5 million for the proposed design center. The donation propelled the project forward, and the Committee for the Practice of Visual Arts began to look for an architect to undertake the project. Originally, the committee had recommended that the building be designed by "a first rate American architect" who would be in the company of Charles Bulfinch and Walter Gropius, among others. However, José Luis Sert, who was at the time Dean of the Graduate School of Design and chairman of the committee suggested that his friend and previous collaborator, Le Corbusier, be asked to design the building. Delayed due to scheduling and payment conflicts, Le Corbusier eventually accepted and made his first of two visits to Cambridge in 1959.</p><br>
<h2>Design and construction</h2><br>
<p>After much debate, a site was chosen between Quincy and Prescott Streets, abiding by the original proposal for the building. The allotted space was quite small, so the completed building presents itself as a compact, roughly cylindrical mass bisected by an S-shaped ramp on the third floor. Le Corbusiers earliest design showed a much more pronounced ramp that further separated the two parts of the central mass. However, the early design created the problem of too much disruption of the central mass. This problem auditorium reconciled by using a pinwheel effect so that in the finally executed design, the two halves meet at a vertical core that houses an elevator. The concrete ramp is cantilevered from this central spine and stands atop a few pilotis. The landing at the top of the ramp is located in the core of the building and leads to various studios and exhibition spaces seen through glass windows and doors, providing views into the buildings instructional and displaying functions without interrupting the activities in progress.</p><br>
<p>The exterior of the Carpenter Center presents itself very differently from different angles. From Prescott Street looking toward the curved studio space, one can see the brise-soleil that are placed perpendicular to the direction of the central portion of the ramp, making only their narrow ends visible from the street. The Quincy Street view, however, reveals ondulatoires on this studios exterior curve, which interfere with the buildings curve less than the brise-soleil do on the opposite side. On the ramp from Quincy street just before entering the building, one sees grids of square and rectangles of the windows, brise-soleils, and studio spaces, rather than the curves of the two halves of the building.</p><br>
<h2>Le Corbusier's Five Points</h2><br>
<p>During his career, Le Corbusier developed a set of architectural principles that dictated his technique, which he called "the Five Points of a New Architecture" and were most evident in his Villa Savoye. The five points are:</p><br>
<p>Pilotis – Replacement of supporting walls by a grid of reinforced concrete columns that bears the structural load is the basis of the new aesthetic.</p><br>
<p>The free designing of the ground plan—the absence of supporting walls—means the house is unrestrained in its internal use.</p><br>
<p>The free design of the façade—separating the exterior of the building from its structural function—sets the façade free from structural constraints.</p><br>
<p>The horizontal window, which cuts the façade along its entire length, lights rooms equally.</p><br>
<p>Roof gardens on a flat roof can serve a domestic purpose while providing essential protection to the concrete roof.</p><br>
<p>Because the Carpenter Center was to be his only building in America, he felt it should be a synthesis of his architectural principles and therefore incorporated his Five Points into its design.</p><br>
<h2>Later history</h2><br>
<p>The building now houses the department of Visual and Environmental Studies of the University, and is the venue for screenings by the Harvard Film Archive.</p><br>
<p>Le Corbusier never actually saw the building. He was invited to the opening ceremony, but he declined the invitation on account of his poor health.</p><br>
<p>The French artist Pierre Huyghe explored the creation of the building in his 2004 work This Is Not A Time For Dreaming".</p><br>
<h2>Criticism</h2><br>
<p>Le Corbusier later became well-known as being a major influence for the urban renewal projects that replaced Scollay Square with Boston City Hall Plaza and the West End of Boston.</p><br>
<p>Boracay is a small island in the Philippines located approximately 315 km south of Manila and 2 km off the northwest tip of Panay Island in Western Visayas region of the Philippines. Boracay Island and its beaches have received awards from numerous travel publications and agencies.</p><br>
<p>The island comprises the barangays of Manoc-Manoc, Balabag, and Yapak in the municipality of Malay, in Aklan Province. The island is administered by the Philippine Tourism Authority and the provincial government of Aklan. Apart from its white sand beaches, Boracay is also famous for being one of the world&#39;s top destinations for relaxation. It is also emerging among the top destinations for tranquility and nightlife.</p><br>
<p>Boracay was awarded as the 2012 best island in the world from the international travel magazine Travel + Leisure. In 2014, the resort island was at the top of the Best Islands in the World list published by the international magazine Condé Nast Traveler. In 2016, Boracay headed the magazine&#39;s list of Top 10 destinations to watch.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name Boracay is attributed to different origins. One story says that it is derived from the local word "borac" which means white cotton with characteristics close to the color and texture of Boracay&#39;s white sugary and powdery sand. Another credits the name to local words "bora," meaning bubbles, and "bocay," meaning white. Yet another version dating back to the Spanish era says the name is derived from "sagay," the word for a shell, and "boray," the word for seed.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Pre-colonial period</h3><br>
<p>Boracay was originally home to the Ati people. Boracay Island was already an inhabited place before the Spaniards came to the Philippines. It was known to the Iberian conquerors as Buracay. At the time of contact with the Europeans, Buracay had a population of one hundred people, who cultivated rice on the island and augmented their income by raising goats.</p><br>
<h3>Contemporary period</h3><br>
<p>Boracay is part of Aklan, which became an independent province on April 25, 1956.</p><br>
<p>In around 1900, a certain Sofía Gonzáles Tirol and her husband Lamberto Hontiveros Tirol, a town judge on the Panay mainland, took ownership of substantial properties on the island, and planted coconuts, fruit trees, and greenery. Others followed the Tirols, and cultivation and development of the island gradually spread.</p><br>
<p>Tourism came to the island beginning sometime in the 1970s. The movie Too Late the Hero was filmed in 1970 on locations in Boracay and Caticlan. In the 1980s, the island became popular as a budget destination for backpackers. By the 1990s, Boracay&#39;s beaches were being acclaimed as the best in the world.</p><br>
<p>In 2012, the Philippine Department of Tourism reported that Boracay had been named the world&#39;s second best beach after Providenciales in the Turks and Caicos Islands.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Boracay Island is located off the northwest corner of Panay Island, and belongs to the Western Visayas island-group, or Region VI, of the Philippines. The island is approximately seven kilometers long, dog-bone shaped with the narrowest spot being less than one kilometer wide, and has a total land area of 10.32 square kilometers.</p><br>
<p>South-facing Cagban Beach is located across a small strait from the jetty port at Caticlan on Panay island, and the Cagban jetty port serves as Boracay&#39;s main entry and exit point during most of the year. When wind and sea conditions dictate, east-facing Tambisaan Beach serves as an alternative entry and exit point.</p><br>
<p>Boracays two primary tourism beaches, White Beach and Bulabog Beach, are located on opposite sides of the islands narrow central area. White Beach faces westward and Bulabog Beach faces eastward. The island also has several other beaches.</p><br>
<p>White Beach, the main tourism beach, is about four kilometers long and is lined with resorts, hotels, lodging houses, restaurants, and other tourism-related businesses. In the central portion, for about two kilometers, there is a footpath known as the Beachfront Path separating the beach itself from the establishments located along it. North and south of the Beachfront Path, beachfront establishments do literally front along the beach itself. Several roads and paths connect the Beachfront Path with Boracay&#39;s Main Road, a vehicular road which runs the length of the island. At the extreme northern end of White Beach, a footpath runs around the headland there and connects White Beach with Diniwid Beach.</p><br>
<p>Bulabog Beach, across the island from White Beach, is the second most popular tourism beach on the island and Boracay&#39;s main windsurfing and kiteboarding area.</p><br>
<p>Boracay is divided for land use and conservation purposes into 400 hectares of preserved forestland and 628.96 hectares of agricultural land.</p><br>
<h2>Climate</h2><br>
<p>Weather in Boracay is generally divided into two seasonal weather patterns known locally as the Amihan and Habagat seasons. In the Visayan language, Amihan means a cool northeast wind, and Habagat means west or southwest wind; southwest monsoon.</p><br>
<p>(19th printing)</p><br>
<p>The Amihan season is characterized by moderate temperatures, little or no rainfall, and a prevailing wind from the northeast. The Habagat season is characterized by hot and humid weather, frequent heavy rainfall, and a prevailing wind from the west.</p><br>
<p>On Boracay, the main indicator of the switch between the Amihan and Habagat seasonal patterns is the switch in wind direction. In most years this transition is abrupt and occurs overnight. In some years there is a period of perhaps a week or two where the wind will switch between Amihan and Habagat patterns several times before settling into the pattern for the new season. As a rule of thumb, Boracay will be in the Amihan weather pattern from sometime in October to sometime in June and in the Habagat weather pattern for the remainder of the year.</p><br>
<p>Daytime temperatures on Boracay generally range from 77 - from the beginning of the Amihan season into February or March, and increase to the 82 - range with the onset of the Habagat season.</p><br>
<p>^ During Tropical Storm periods, temperatures can fall below 68 &deg;F. Tropical Storms can impact Boracay at any time of year, but are most likely to be seen during the Habagat season.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>Partly because of its wind and weather patterns, tourism in Boracay is at its peak during the amihan season (start from September or October and ends sometime in May or June). During amihan, the prevailing wind blows from the east. Boracays main tourism area, White Beach, is on the western side of the island and is sheltered from the wind. During the Amihan season, the water off White Beach is often glassy-smooth. On the eastern side of the island, hills on the northern and southern ends of the island channel the Amihan season wind from the east onshore, onto Bulabog Beach in the central part of the islands eastern side. This makes the reef-protected waters off that beach relatively safe and ideal for scuba diving, windsurfing, and kiteboarding / kitesurfing.</p><br>
<p>In June 2011, it was reported that Megaworld Corporation, a real estate development group led by Andrew Tan had earmarked PHP20 billion to develop tourism estates "featuring an integrated, master-planned layout and world-class resort offerings and amenities" in Boracay and Cavite. The planned Boracay project, Boracay Newcoast, involves four hotels with 1,500 rooms, a plaza and an entertainment center.</p><br>
<h3>Leisure activities</h3><br>
<p>Leisure activities available on or near Boracay include horseback riding, scuba diving, diving helmet, snorkeling, windsurfing, kiteboarding, cliff diving, parasailing.</p><br>
<p>Boracay is the site of an 18-hole par 72 golf course designed by Graham Marsh. In addition, Boracay has in excess of 350 beach resorts offering more than 2,000 rooms ranging in quality from five-star to budget accommodation. In addition, Boracay offers a wide range of restaurants, bars, pubs, and nightclubs.</p><br>
<p>A landmark natural rock formation, Boracays Rock, juts prominently directly in front of Willys Beach Resort.</p><br>
<h2>Sports</h2><br>
<p>Boracay is one competitive venue for the Asian Windsurfing Tour, with the week-long Boracay International Funboard Cup competition usually held in January on Bulabog Beach. CNNGo, a division of CNN focused on travel/lifestyle/entertainment, selected the Boracay International Funboard Competition on the weekend of January 22–24 as one of its 52 weekend recommendations for 2010.</p><br>
<p>^ Estan Cabigas, CNN Go, 18 January 2010.</p><br>
<p>Dragon boat races are held annually on Boracay under the auspices of the Philippine Dragon Boat Federation, with teams coming from around the Philippines and from other Asian nations to compete. The races usually take place sometime in April or May. The 2012 Boracay Edition of the PDBF International Club Crew Challenge to is scheduled for April 26–28, 2012.</p><br>
<p>The Boracay Open Asian Beach Ultimate Tournament, an ultimate frisbee event, with players coming from around the Philippines and from other International nations, has been held annually since 2003, usually in March or April.</p><br>
<h3>Asian Games Centennial Festival</h3><br>
<p>Boracay will host a special multi-sport event called the Asian Games Centennial Festival. On its 31st General Assembly in Macau, the Olympic Council of Asia (OCA) has decided to create the Asian Games Centennial Festival in celebration of the 100th anniversary of the Oriental Games (later became Far Eastern Championship Games). OCA has awarded the Philippines the hosting rights as it was the same host 100 years ago in the first Far Eastern Championship Games held in Manila. The Asian Games Centennial Festival was to be held in Boracay on November 2013. However, due to Typhoon Haiyan, it was postponed to January 17, 2014, at the Sofitel Plaza in Manila. The 32nd OCA General Assembly was to be held in conjunction with the games.</p><br>
<h3>Philippine Swimming League</h3><br>
<p>On April 27, 2014, the Philippine Swimming League was held at Boracay Island for their open water swim after the competition in Aklan Sports Complex in Makato, Aklan. Many swimming teams joined the competition including Aklan Swimming Club based in Kalibo, Aklan and John B. Lacson Swimming Team which it is based in Iloilo City.</p><br>
<h2>Culture</h2><br>
<p>The first settlers of Boracay were a Negrito people called the Ati, and who spoke a Visayan language called Inati. Later settlers brought other languages to the island, including Aklanon (as Boracay is part of Aklan province), Hiligaynon (Ilonggo), Kinaray-a, Capiznon, other Visayan languages, Filipino, and English.</p><br>
<p>The well-known Ati-Atihan Festival takes place each January in Kalibo on nearby Panay Island. A much smaller Ati-Atihan festival is celebrated on Boracay, usually in the second or third week of January.</p><br>
<h2>Transportation</h2><br>
<p>Boracay island is separated from Panay island by a narrow strait. The island is located opposite the barangay of Caticlan in the municipality of Malay, Aklan. Transportation across the strait is provided by boats operating from the Caticlan jetty port.</p><br>
<p>Boracay is served by two airports in Aklan: the Kalibo International Airport and Godofredo P. Ramos Airport commonly referred to as the Caticlan airport.</p><br>
<p>The western part of the Strong Republic Nautical Highway (SRNH) passes through Caticlan, with car ferries from Roxas, Oriental Mindoro docking at the Caticlan jetty port. Several bus companies operate provincial bus routes from Manila which pass through Caticlan via the SRNH.</p><br>
<p>2GO, the largest ferry company in the Philippines, offers regular overnight passenger and cargo service between Batangas City and Caticlan.</p><br>
<p>The two main modes of transport are via motor-tricycles along the main road or by walking along the beaches. Pedicabs, known as sikads, are also available along the Beachfront Path. Other means of transportation include mountain bikes, quadbikes and motorbikes, all of which can be rented.</p><br>
<p>Multnomah Falls is a waterfall on the Oregon side of the Columbia River Gorge, located east of Troutdale, between Corbett and Dodson, along the Historic Columbia River Highway.</p><br>
<h2>Formation</h2><br>
<p>The waterfall formed at the end of a hanging valley created by the Missoula Floods.</p><br>
<h2>Description</h2><br>
<p>The falls drops in two major steps, split into an upper falls of 542 ft and a lower falls of 69 ft, with a gradual 9 foot (3 m) drop in elevation between the two, so the total height of the waterfall is conventionally given as 620 ft. The two drops are due to a zone of more easily eroded basalt at the base of the upper falls.</p><br>
<h2>Height</h2><br>
<p>Multnomah Falls is the tallest waterfall in the state of Oregon. It is credited by a sign at the site of the falls, and by the United States Forest Service, as the second tallest year-round waterfall in the United States. However, there is some skepticism surrounding this distinction, as Multnomah Falls is listed as the 156th tallest waterfall in the United States by the World Waterfall Database (this site does not distinguish between seasonal and year-round waterfalls).</p><br>
<h2>Water source</h2><br>
<p>Underground springs from Larch Mountain are the year-round source of water for the waterfall, augmented by spring runoff from the mountain&#39;s snowpack and rainwater during the other seasons.</p><br>
<h2>Trails</h2><br>
<p>A paved foot trail leads to Benson Footbridge, a 45-foot (14 m)-long footbridge that allows visitors to cross 105 feet (32 m) above the lower cascade. After a viewpoint of the upper falls, the trail continues up many switchbacks to a platform at the top of the upper falls where visitors get a bird&#39;s-eye view of the Columbia Gorge and also of "Little Multnomah", a small cascade slightly upstream from the "upper" falls, which is not visible from ground level. The Mark O. Hatfield Memorial Trail starts at the falls and continues through the Oregon side of the Columbia River Gorge to Starvation Creek. The footbridge is named for Simon Benson, who in 1914 financed Italian stonemasons to construct the bridge.</p><br>
<h2>The land and the building</h2><br>
<p>Benson soon gave Portland land that included most of the falls as well as nearby Wahkeena Falls. The Oregon-Washington Railroad and Navigation Company gave Portland land at the base of Multnomah Falls contingent upon their agreement to build a lodge at the site. A few years later architect A.E. Doyle, who designed the Meier & Frank Building, was commissioned by the city to design the lodge, which was completed in 1925. The lodge is now on the National Register of Historic Places.</p><br>
<h2>Access</h2><br>
<p>In contrast to other falls along the Gorge, the Multnomah area is also reachable via a stretch of I-84 east of Troutdale, Oregon. The rest area and tunnel under the road (as well as the Union Pacific Railroad tracks) allow Interstate travelers from either direction to stop and visit the falls.</p><br>
<p>During the summer season and holidays the parking lot along the freeway access can fill up very quickly which prompts a gate to come down and a reader board sign along the freeway before the offramp flashes that the parking lot is full.</p><br>
<h2>Falling boulders</h2><br>
<p>On Labor Day in September 1995, a 400-ton boulder, loosened by erosion, fell 225 ft from the face of the waterfall into the upper cascade pool, above Benson Bridge. It caused a 70 ft splash of water and gravel to wash over the footbridge, causing minor injuries to twenty members of a wedding party that happened to be on the bridge posing for photos at the time.</p><br>
<p>On January 9, 2014, a falling rock damaged a portion of the bridge walkway and concrete railing, leading the Forest Service to close the bridge until repairs were completed.</p><br>
<h2>Time of Year to visit</h2><br>
<p>For most of the year the falls are never illuminated by the sun due to their northward orientation. For several weeks around the summer solstice, immediately prior to sunset, the falls are illuminated by the setting sun.</p><br>
<p>Capernaum  was a fishing village established during the time of the Hasmoneans, located on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee. It had a population of about 1,500. Archaeological excavations have revealed two ancient synagogues built one over the other. A house turned into a church by the Byzantines is said to be the home of Saint Peter.</p><br>
<p>The village was inhabited continuously from the 2nd century BC to the 11th century AD, when it was abandoned sometime before the Crusader conquest. This includes the re-establishment of the village during the Early Islamic period soon after the 749 earthquake.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Kfar Nahum, the original name of the small town, means "Nahum&#39;s village" in Hebrew, but apparently there is no connection with the prophet named Nahum. In the writings of Josephus, the name is rendered in Greek as Kαφαρναούμ, Kapharnaum (Tzaferis, 1989), and Κεφαρνωκόν, "Kepharnōkon&quot the New Testament uses Kapharnaum in some manuscripts, and Kαπερναούμ, Kapernaum, in others. In Arabic, it is called Talhum, and it is assumed that this refers to the ruin (tell) of Hum (perhaps an abbreviated form of Nahum) (Tzaferis, 1989).</p><br>
<h2>New Testament</h2><br>
<p>The town is cited in all four gospels (,, ) where it was reported to have been near the hometown of the apostles Simon Peter, Andrew, James and John, as well as the tax collector Matthew. One Sabbath, Jesus taught in the synagogue in Capernaum and healed a man who was possessed by an unclean spirit ( and ). This story is notable for being the only one common between the gospels of Mark and Luke, but not contained in the gospel of Matthew (see Synoptic Gospels for more literary comparison between the gospels). Afterwards, he healed Simon Peter&#39;s mother-in-law of a fever. According to and, it is also the place where Jesus healed the servant of a Roman centurion who had asked for his help. Capernaum is also the location of the healing of the paralytic lowered through the roof to reach Jesus reported in, and.</p><br>
<p>In the town is referred to only as "his own city" and the narrative does not mention the paralytic being lowered through the roof. Most traditional biblical commentators assume that "his own city" means Capernaum because of the details which are common to the three synoptic gospels. although the writers of the Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary suggest that alternatively it could refer to Nazareth.</p><br>
<p>According to the Synoptic Gospels, Jesus selected this town as the center of his public ministry in Galilee after he left the small mountainous hamlet of Nazareth. He also formally cursed the city, saying "you will be thrown down to Hades!" because of their lack of faith in him as the Messiah.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Archaeological evidence demonstrates that the town was established in the 2nd century BC during the Hasmonean period, when a number of new fishing villages sprung up around the lake. The site had no defensive wall and extended along the shore of the nearby lake (from east to west). The cemetery zone is found 200 meters north of the synagogue, which places it beyond the inhabited area of the town. It extended 3 kilometers to Tabgha, an area which appears to have been used for agricultural purposes, judging by the many oil and grain mills which were discovered in the excavation. Fishing was also a source of income; the remains of another harbor were found to the west of that built by the Franciscans.</p><br>
<p>No sources have been found for the belief that Capernaum was involved in the bloody Jewish revolts against the Romans, the First Jewish-Roman War (AD 66–73) or Bar Kokhba&#39;s revolt (132–135), although there is reason to believe that Josephus, one of the Jewish generals during the earlier revolt, was taken to Capernaum (which he called Κεφαρνωκὸν, "Kapharnakos") after a fall from his horse in nearby Bethsaida.</p><br>
<p>Josephus referred to Capernaum as a fertile spring. He stayed the night there after bruising his wrist in a riding accident. During the first Jewish revolt of 66–70 Capernaum was spared as it didn&#39;t have to be occupied by force by the Romans.</p><br>
<h2>Archaeology</h2><br>
<p>In 1838, American explorer Edward Robinson discovered the ruins of ancient Capernaum. In 1866, British Captain Charles William Wilson identified the remains of the synagogue, and in 1894, Franciscan Friar Giuseppe Baldi of Naples, the Custodian of the Holy Land, was able to recover a good part of the ruins from the Bedouins. The Franciscans raised a fence to protect the ruins from frequent vandalism, and planted palms and eucalyptus trees brought from Australia to create a small oasis for pilgrims. They also built a small harbor. These labors were directed by Franciscan Virgilio Corbo.</p><br>
<p>The most important excavations began in 1905 under the direction of Germans Heinrich Kohl and Carl Watzinger. They were continued by Franciscans Fathers Vendelin von Benden (1905–1915) and Gaudenzio Orfali (1921–1926). The excavations resulted in the discovery of two public buildings, the synagogue (which was partially restored by Fr Orfali), and an octagonal church. Later, in 1968, excavation of the western portion of the site—the portion owned by the Franciscans—was restarted by Corbo and Stanislao Loffreda, with the financial assistance of the Italian government. During this phase, the major discovery was of a house which is claimed to be St. Peter&#39;s house in a neighborhood of the town from the 1st century AD. These excavations have been ongoing, with some publication on the Internet as recently as 2003.</p><br>
<p>The excavations revealed that the site was established at the beginning of the Hasmonean period, roughly in the 2nd century BC, and abandoned in the 11th century.</p><br>
<p>The eastern half of the site, where the Church of the Seven Apostles stands and owned by an Orthodox monastery, was surveyed and partially excavated under the direction of Vasilios Tzaferis. This section has uncovered the village from the Byzantine and Early Arab periods. Features include a pool apparently used for the processing of fish, and a hoard of gold coins. (Tzaferis, 1989).</p><br>
<p>The layout of the town was quite regular. On both sides of an ample north-south main street arose small districts bordered by small cross-sectional streets and no-exit side-streets. The walls were constructed with coarse basalt blocks and reinforced with stone and mud, but the stones (except for the thresholds) were not dressed and mortar was not used.</p><br>
<p>The most extensive part of the typical house was the courtyard, where there was a circular furnace made of refractory earth, as well as grain mills and a set of stone stairs that led to the roof. The floors of the houses were cobbled. Around the open courtyard, modest cells were arranged which received light through a series of openings or low windows (Loffreda, 1984).</p><br>
<p>Given the coarse construction of the walls, there was no second story to a typical home, and the roof would have been constructed of light wooden beams and thatch mixed with mud. This, along with the discovery of the stairs to the roof, recalls the biblical story of the Healing of the Paralytic: "And when they could not come nigh unto him for the press, they uncovered the roof where he was: and when they had broken it up, let down the bed wherein the sick of the palsy lay." (Mark 2:4) With the type of construction seen in Capernaum, it would not have been difficult to raise the ceiling by the courtyard stairs and to remove a part to allow the bed to be brought down to where Jesus stood.</p><br>
<p>A study of the district located between the synagogue and the octagonal church showed that several families lived together in the patriarchal style, communally using the same courtyards and doorless internal passages. The houses had no hygienic facilities or drainage; the rooms were narrow. Most objects found were made of clay: pots, plates, amphoras, and lamps. Fish hooks, weights for fish nets, striker pins, weaving bobbins, and basalt mills for milling grain and pressing olives were also found (Loffreda, 1974).</p><br>
<p>As of the 4th century, the houses were constructed with good quality mortar and fine ceramics. This was about the time that the synagogue now visible was built. Differences in social class were not noticeable. Buildings constructed at the founding of the town continued to be in use until the time of the abandonment of the town.</p><br>
<h2>House of Peter</h2><br>
<p>One block of homes, called by the Franciscan excavators the sacra insula or "holy insula" ("insula" refers to a block of homes around a courtyard) was found to have a complex history. Located between the synagogue and the lake shore, it was found near the front of a labyrinth of houses from many different periods. Three principal layers have been identified:</p><br>
<p>A group of private houses built around the 1st century BC which remained in use until the early 4th century.</p><br>
<p>The great transformation of one of the homes in the 4th century.</p><br>
<p>The octagonal church in the middle of the 5th century.</p><br>
<p>The excavators concluded that one house in the village was venerated as the house of Peter the fisherman as early as the mid-1st century, with two churches having been constructed over it (Loffreda, 1984).</p><br>
<h3>1st century</h3><br>
<p>The city&#39;s basalt houses are grouped around two large courtyards, one to the north and the other to the south. One large room in particular, near the east side and joining both courtyards, was especially large (sides about 7.5 meters long) and roughly square. An open space on the eastern side contained a brick oven. A threshold which allowed crossing between the two courtyards remains well-preserved to this day.</p><br>
<p>Beginning in the latter half of the 1st century AD, this house displayed markedly different characteristics than the other excavated houses. The rough walls were reworked with care and were covered with inscriptions; the floor was covered with a fine layer of plaster. Furthermore, almost no domestic ceramics are recovered, but lamps abound. One explanation suggested for this treatment is that the room was venerated as a religious gathering place, a domus-ecclesia or house church, for the Christian community. (Loffreda, 1984) This suggestion has been critiqued by several scholars, however. In particular, where excavators had claimed to find graffiti including the name of Peter, others have found very little legible writing (Strange and Shanks, 1982). Others have questioned whether the space is actually a room; the paved floor, the large space without supports, and the presence of a cooking space have prompted some to note that these are more consistent with yet another courtyard (Freyne, 2001).</p><br>
<h3>4th-century transformation</h3><br>
<p>In this period, the sacra insula acquired a new appearance. First, a thick-walled, slightly trapezoidal enclosure was built surrounding the entire insula; its sides were 27–30 meters long. Made of plaster, they reached a height of 2.3 meters on the north side. It had two doors, one in the southwest corner and the other in the northeast corner. Next, although there is evidence that the private houses remained in use after the transformation, the one particular room that had before been treated differently was profoundly altered and expanded. A central archway was added to support a roof and the north wall was strengthened with mortar. New pavement was installed, and the walls and floor were plastered. (Loffreda, 1974) This structure remained until the middle of the 5th century when the sacra insula was dismantled and replaced with a larger basilica.</p><br>
<h3>Octagonal 5th-century church</h3><br>
<p>The 5th-century church consists of a central octagon with eight pillars, an exterior octagon with thresholds still in situ, and a gallery or portico that leads both into the interior of the church as well as into a complex of associated buildings to the east, a linkage achieved via a short passageway. Later, this passage was blocked and an apse with a pool for baptism was constructed in the middle of the east wall. From this wall ascended two stairs on either side of the baptistery, and the excess water from the rite would have escaped along this path. The Byzantines, upon constructing the new church, placed the central octagon directly on top of the walls of St. Peter&#39;s house with the aim of preserving its exact location, although none of the original house was visible any longer, as the walls had been torn down and the floor covered in mosaics.</p><br>
<p>In the portico, the pattern of the mosaic was purely geometric, with four rows of contiguous circles and small crosses. In the zone of the external octagon, the mosaics represented plants and animals in a style similar to that found in the Basilica of the Feeding of the Five Thousand, in Tabgha. In the central octagon, the mosaic was composed of a strip of calcified flowers, of a field of schools of fish with small flowers, and of a great circle with a peacock in the center.</p><br>
<h3>The Memorial (1990)</h3><br>
<p>The so-called Memorial is a modern shrine built above the excavated remains of the ancient house and the Byzantine octagonal church, and dedicated in 1990. The disk-shaped structure stands on concrete stilts, ensuring visibility to the venerated ancient building. Additionally, a glass floor located at the centre of the church allows direct view of the excavated remains below.</p><br>
<h2>Synagogue</h2><br>
<p>The ruins of this building, among the oldest synagogues in the world, were identified by Charles William Wilson. The large, ornately carved, white building stones of the synagogue stood out prominently among the smaller, plain blocks of local black basalt used for the town&#39;s other buildings, almost all residential. The synagogue was built almost entirely of white blocks of calcareous stone brought from distant quarries.</p><br>
<p>The building consists of four parts: the praying hall, the western patio, a southern balustrade and a small room at the northwest of the building. The praying hall measured 24.40 m by 18.65 m, with the southern face looking toward Jerusalem.</p><br>
<p>The internal walls were covered with painted plaster and fine stucco work found during the excavations. Watzinger, like Orfali, believed that there had been an upper floor reserved for women, with access by means of an external staircase located in the small room. But this opinion was not substantiated by the later excavations of the site.</p><br>
<p>The synagogue appears to have been built around the 4th or 5th century. Beneath the foundation of this synagogue lies another foundation made of basalt, and Loffreda suggests that this is the foundation of a synagogue from the 1st century, perhaps the one mentioned in the Gospels (Loffreda, 1974). Later excavation work was attempted underneath the synagogue floor, but while Loffreda claimed to have found a paved surface, others are of the opinion that this was an open, paved market area.</p><br>
<p>The ancient synagogue has two inscriptions, one in Greek and the other in Aramaic, that commemorates the benefactors that helped in the construction of the building. There are also carvings of five- and six-pointed stars and of palm trees.</p><br>
<p>In 1926, the Franciscan Father began the restoration of the synagogue. The work was interrupted by his death in a car accident in 1926 (which is commemorated by a Latin inscription carved onto one of the synagogue&#39;s columns), and was continued by Virgilio Corbo beginning in 1976.</p><br>
<h2>Papal visit</h2><br>
<p>In March 2000, John Paul II visited the ruins of Capernaum during his visit to Israel.</p><br>
<p>The Wasatch Range is a mountain range that stretches approximately 160 mi from the Utah-Idaho border, south through central Utah in the western United States. It is the western edge of the greater Rocky Mountains, and the eastern edge of the Great Basin region. The northern extension of the Wasatch Range, the Bear River Mountains, extends just into Idaho, constituting all of the Wasatch Range in that state.</p><br>
<p>According to the Utah History Encyclopedia, Wasatch in Ute means "mountain pass" or "low pass over high range." According to William Bright the mountains were named for a Shoshoni leader who was named with the Shoshoni term wasattsi, meaning "blue heron".</p><br>
<h2>Overview</h2><br>
<p>Since the earliest days of settlement, the majority of Utahs population has chosen to settle along the ranges western front, where numerous river drainages exit the mountains. The mountains were a vital source of water, timber, and granite for early settlers. Today, 85% of Utah&#39;s population lives within 15 mi of the Wasatch Range, mainly in the valleys just to the west. This concentration is known as the Wasatch Front and has a population of just over 2,000,000 residents. Salt Lake City lies between the Wasatch Range and the Great Salt Lake.</p><br>
<p>At 11,928 ft, Mount Nebo, a triple peak rising above Nephi, Utah at the southern end of the range, is the highest peak of the Wasatch. In some places the mountains rise immediately from the valley&#39;s base elevation of 4,330 ft to over 11,000 feet (3,582 m), producing steep inclines. Other notable peaks include Mount Timpanogos, a massive peak which looms over northern Utah County and is especially prominent from Pleasant Grove and Orem; Lone Peak, the Twin Peaks, and Mount Olympus, which overlook the Salt Lake Valley; Francis Peak overlooking both Morgan and Davis counties; and Ben Lomond and Mount Ogden, both near Ogden, Utah.</p><br>
<p>Since they top out just below 12,000 ft, Wasatch peaks are not especially high compared to the Colorado Rockies or even the Uinta Mountains, the other main portion of the Rocky Mountains in Utah. However, they are sculpted by glaciers, yielding notably rugged, sweeping upland scenery comparing well with other prominent ranges of western North America. They also receive heavy falls of snow, in some places over 500 in per year. This great snowfall, with its runoff, made possible a prosperous urban strip of some 25 cities along nearly 100 mi of mountain frontage. The Wasatch Range is home to a high concentration of ski areas, with 11 stretching from Sundance in northern Utah County to Powder Mountain and Wolf Mountain northeast of Ogden. There is also one ski resort in the Bear River Mountains (Beaver Mountain). Park City alone is bordered by two ski resorts. Due to the low relative humidity in wintertime, along with the added lake-effect from the Great Salt Lake, the snow has a dry, powdery texture which most of the local ski resorts market as "the Greatest Snow on Earth". The high concentration of ski resorts located close to a major urban area, as well as the famed light, powdery snow thats often considered good for skiing, were prime reasons for Salt Lake Citys hosting of the 2002 Winter Olympics.</p><br>
<p>Several of the Wasatch canyons in the Lone Peak area, most notably Little Cottonwood Canyon, have a number of high-quality granite outcroppings, and make up a popular climbing area such as the Pfeifferhorn. Further north, Big Cottonwood Canyon features tricky climbing on quartzite.</p><br>
<p>The densely vegetated narrow canyons of the Wasatch Range, such as Big Cottonwood Canyon and Little Cottonwood Canyon are heavily visited; on September 25, 2005, 1,200 automobiles entered Little Cottonwood within one hour. The canyons are located within 24 mi of downtown Salt Lake City and the year-round paved roadways can reach 5,000 ft higher in elevation above the city within a short distance. Dirt roads readily drivable in passenger cars with moderate clearance stretch up from Park City, Heber, and Big Cottonwood Canyon. These reach about 10,000 ft above sea level and provide impressive long-range high country views.</p><br>
<h2>Geography and geology</h2><br>
<p>Mount Nebo, the highest peak of the Wasatch, is located at the southern edge of the range. The Colorado Plateau comes to its northwest corner here as it meets the southern end of the Rocky Mountains. Immediately west of these two, the Great Basin, which is the northern region of the Basin and Range Province, begins and stretches westward across western Utah and Nevada until it reaches the Sierra Nevada near the Nevada/California border. The range is punctuated by a series of geologic faults, chief among them the Wasatch fault. These faults also formed Timpanogos Cave National Monument.</p><br>
<p>The northern Wasatch Range is punctuated by a series of mountain valleys. While the western side of the range drops sharply to the floors of the Wasatch Front valleys, the eastern side of the range is gentler, allowing for the construction of several ski resorts. The Cottonwoods, a particularly rugged and dense area just east of the Salt Lake Valley, shelters small mountain coves that harbor four world-famous ski resorts (Alta, Brighton, Solitude, and Snowbird). The eastern slopes of the Cottonwoods drop to the Snyderville Basin, which contains Park City and its two ski resorts (Park City Mountain Resort and Deer Valley). Much of the eastern side of the range from north of Salt Lake City to the Bear River Mountains is especially gentle in comparison to the rest of the range. The range widens significantly east of Ogden, sheltering a high mountain valley known as the Ogden Valley. Three more ski resorts lie here, as well as several small towns (such as Huntsville, Liberty, and Eden).</p><br>
<p>North of this, the Wellsville Mountains branch off from the northwest of the range, continuing a line of mountains paralleling the I-15 corridor. This range is noted for being exceptionally thin and steep. However, USA 89/USA 91 is maintained as a four-lane highway along its entire length through the range at Wellsville Canyon east of Brigham City. Cache Valley, created by the Bear River, is flanked on the west by the Wellsville Mountains and the east by the much denser and higher Bear River Mountains. The northwestern border of Cache Valley is flanked by the Bannock Range in Idaho. The two highest peaks in this area are Mount Naomi and Mount Logan, each just under 10,000 feet in elevation.</p><br>
<p>The southeastern portion of the range across Wasatch County transforms into the relatively flat, windswept Wasatch Plateau at an elevation of approximately 8,500 ft to 9,500 ft. At its southeastern edge, just north of Helper, it runs into the Book Cliffs. Further north, the Heber Valley and Weber River Valley separate the Wasatch Range from the Uinta Mountains, while the Bear River Valley and Bear Lake Valley separate it from lower mountain ranges that mark the western edge of the Green River Basin.</p><br>
<p>Throughout the length of the Wasatch Range, it is traversed by just 7 highways (as well as several rugged mountain roads and unpaved trails). The two most prominent are I-80 through Parley&#39;s Canyon east of Salt Lake City, and I-84 through Weber Canyon east of Ogden. They meet near the ghost town of Echo on the eastern slopes of the range and continue northeast as I-80. Other highways through the range include USA 6/USA 89 through Spanish Fork Canyon, USA 189 through Provo Canyon, Utah State Route 39 extending east from Huntsville (a route which is closed in winter), USA 89/USA 91 through Logan Canyon, and along Idaho State Route 36 near the northern end of the range.</p><br>
<p>The Denver and Rio Grande Western Railroad had a line through the Wasatch Mountains, via Soldier Summit Pass and Spanish Fork Canyon. Now operated by the Union Pacific Railroad, the line is used by freight trains, as well as Amtrak&#39;s California Zephyr.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<p>The Wasatch Range is part of the Wasatch and Uinta Mountains Level 3 Ecoregion, a temperate coniferous forest. Common trees include Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), subalpine fir (Abies bifolia), Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii), Colorado blue spruce (Picea pungens), and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides). Gambel oak (Quercus gambelii) is common on the foothills of the range from just south of Brigham City in the north, to the southern extension of the Wasatch Range. It is not found in the northern portion of the Range. Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), while abundant elsewhere in Utah is not common in this mountain range, except in plantations in Big Cottonwood Canyon southeast of Salt Lake City and in Logan Canyon, east of Logan, Utah. Some individual trees have been found in remote areas of the Wasatch Range that appear to be relic individuals from past populations.</p><br>
<p>Subspecies of big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) dominate drier portions of the landscapes. Most of the sagebrush that occurs in the Wasatch Range is mountain big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. vaseyana). Many of the valley bottoms at one time were occupied by basin big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. tridentata). Most of this subspecies has been removed, however, because it occurred on what constitutes prime agricultural lands. In upper elevations, and on slightly more mesic sites than that of mountain big sagebrush, one can find subalpine big sagebrush (Artemisia tridenta ssp. spiciformis). This subspecies occupies productive sites and often has a lush understory of wildflowers and grasses. Wyoming big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata ssp. wyomingensis) occurs at the lowest and driest elevations, although much of the Wasatch Range is above the elevation where this subspecies occurs. All sagebrush species, combined, provide critical habitat to greater sage grouse, a species under consideration for listing by the US Fish and Wildlife Service.</p><br>
<p>The Wasatch Range is home to several endemic plants - those that occur nowhere other than in this area. Several of these are very rare and restricted to narrow geological formations, while others are more widely distributed throughout the area. Some of the less rare endemics include five-petal cliffbush (Jamesia americana var. macrocalyx), Sierra fumewort (Corydalis caseana ssp. brachycarpa), and Utah angelica (Angelica wheeleri).</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>In addition to the world class ski resorts, the Wasatch range is home to a host of other outdoor pursuits as well. Hundreds of miles of mountain biking and hiking trails wind through the canyons and alpine valleys of the Wasatch offering back country access in very close proximity to a large metropolitan area.</p><br>
<p>Outdoor enthusiasts can also find world class rock climbing and mountaineering on the towering limestone, granite and quartzite peaks and in many of the surrounding canyons. Winter recreation includes excellent ski touring & ski mountaineering.</p><br>
<p>Alpine lakes and streams offer somewhat over-worked fishing opportunities. The Wasatch Mountain Club calendars regular activities allowing one to experience the Wasatch Range. The Utah Native Plant Society regularly conducts walks from spring until fall along the foothills of the Central Wasatch Front and in adjoining canyons as the seasons progress. A particularly spectacular location for wildflowers in the late summer is Albion Basin at the top of Little Cottonwood Canyon.</p><br>
<p>St James&#39;s Palace is the most senior royal palace in the United Kingdom. Located in the City of Westminster, although no longer the principal residence of the monarch, it is the ceremonial meeting place of the Accession Council and the London residence of several minor members of the royal family.</p><br>
<p>Built by King Henry VIII on the site of a leper hospital dedicated to Saint James the Less, the palace was secondary in importance to the Palace of Whitehall for most Tudor and Stuart monarchs. The palace increased in importance during the reigns of the early Georgian monarchy, but was displaced by Buckingham Palace in the late-18th and early-19th centuries. After decades of being used increasingly for only formal occasions, the move was formalised by Queen Victoria in 1837. Today the palace houses a number of official offices, societies and collections and all ambassadors and high commissioners to the United Kingdom are still accredited to the Court of St James&#39;s.</p><br>
<p>Mainly built between 1531 and 1536 in red-brick, the palaces architecture is primarily Tudor in style. A fire in 1809 destroyed parts of the structure, including the monarchs private apartments, which were never replaced. Some 17th-century interiors survive, but most were remodelled in the 19th century.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Tudors</h3><br>
<p>The palace was commissioned by Henry VIII, on the site of a former leper hospital dedicated to Saint James the Less. The new palace, secondary in the kings interest to Henrys Whitehall Palace, was constructed between 1531 and 1536 as a smaller residence to escape formal court life. Much smaller than the nearby Whitehall, St Jamess was arranged around a number of courtyards, including the Colour Court, the Ambassadors Court and the Friary Court. The most recognisable feature is the north gatehouse; constructed with four storeys, the gatehouse has two crenellated flanking octagonal towers at its corners and a central clock dominating the uppermost floor and gable; the clock is a later addition, and dates from 1731. It is decorated with the initials H.A. for Henry and his second wife, Anne Boleyn. Henry constructed the palace in red brick, with detail picked out in darker brick.</p><br>
<p>The palace was remodelled in 1544, with ceilings painted by Hans Holbein, and was described as a "pleasant royal house". and Mary I. Elizabeth I often resided at the palace, and is said to have spent the night there while waiting for the Spanish Armada to sail up the Channel.</p><br>
<h3>Stuarts</h3><br>
<p>In 1638, Charles I gave the palace to Marie de Medici, the mother of his wife Henrietta Maria. Marie remained in the palace for three years, but the residence of a Catholic former queen of France proved unpopular with parliament and she was soon asked to leave for Cologne. Charles I spent his final night at St James&#39;s before his execution. Oliver Cromwell then took it over, and turned it into barracks during the English Commonwealth period. Charles II, James II, Mary II and Anne were all born at the palace.</p><br>
<p>The palace was restored by Charles II following the demise of the Commonwealth, laying out St James&#39;s Park at the same time. It became the principal residence of the monarch in London in 1698, during the reign of William III and Mary II after Whitehall Palace was destroyed by fire, and became the administrative centre of the monarchy, a role it retains.</p><br>
<h3>House of Hanover</h3><br>
<p>The first two monarchs of the House of Hanover used St Jamess Palace as their principal London residence. George I and George II both housed their mistresses, the Duchess of Kendal and the Countess of Suffolk respectively, at the palace. In 1757, George II donated the Palace library to the British Museum; this gift was the first part of what later became the Royal Collection. In 1809, a fire destroyed part of the palace, including the monarchs private apartments at the south east corner. These apartments were not replaced, leaving the Queen&#39;s Chapel in isolation, and Marlborough Road now runs between the two buildings.</p><br>
<p>George III found St James&#39;s increasingly unsuitable. The Tudor palace was regarded as uncomfortable and too cramped for his ever-growing family.</p><br>
<p>In 1762 George purchased Buckingham Housethe predecessor to Buckingham Palacefor his queen, Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz</p><br>
<p>The royal family began to spend the majority of their time at Buckingham House, with St James&#39;s being used for only the most formal of occasions; thrice-weekly levées</p><br>
<p>and public audiences were still held there. In the late 18th century, George III refurbished the state apartments but neglected the living quarters. Queen Victoria formalised the move in 1837, ending St Jamess status as the primary residence of the monarch. It was nevertheless where Victoria married her husband, Prince Albert, in 1840, and where, eighteen years later, Victoria and Alberts eldest child, Princess Victoria, married her husband, Prince Frederick of Prussia.</p><br>
<p>For most of the time of the personal union between Great Britain (later the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland) and the Electorate of Hanover from 1714 until 1837 the ministers of the German Chancery were working in two small rooms within St James&#39;s Palace.</p><br>
<h3>20th century</h3><br>
<p>Second Round Table Conference (September – December 1931) pertaining to Indian independence was held here. On 12 June 1941, Representatives of the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa, and of the exiled governments of Belgium, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, and Yugoslavia, as well as General de Gaulle of France, met and signed the Declaration of St James&#39;s Palace which was the first of six treaties signed that established the United Nations and composed the Charter of the United Nations.</p><br>
<h2>Today</h2><br>
<p>St Jamess Palace is still a working palace, and the Royal Court is still formally based there, despite the monarch residing elsewhere. It is also the London residence of the Princess Royal; Princess Beatrice of York; Princess Eugenie of York; and Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy. The palace is used to host official receptions, such as those of visiting heads of state, and charities of which members of the royal family are patrons. The Palace forms part of a sprawling complex of buildings housing Court offices and officials apartments. The immediate palace complex includes York House, the former home of the Prince of Wales and his sons, Princes William and Harry. Lancaster House located next-door, is used by HM Government for official receptions, and the nearby Clarence House, the former home of the Queen Mother is now the residence of the Prince of Wales.</p><br>
<p>The nearby Queens Chapel, built by Inigo Jones, adjoins St Jamess Palace. While the Queen&#39;s Chapel is open to the public at selected times, the Chapel Royal in the palace is not accessible to the public. They both remain active places of worship.</p><br>
<p>The offices of the Royal Collection Department, the Marshal of the Diplomatic Corps, the Central Chancery of the Orders of Knighthood, the Chapel Royal, the Gentlemen at Arms, the Yeomen of the Guard and the Queens Watermen are all housed at St Jamess Palace. Since the beginning of the 2000s, the Royal Philatelic Collection has been housed at St James&#39;s Palace, after spending the entire 20th century at Buckingham Palace.</p><br>
<p>On 1 June 2007 the palace, Clarence House and other buildings within its curtilage (other than public pavement on Marlborough Road) were designated as a protected site for the purposes of Section 128 of the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005. The effect of the act was to make it a specific criminal offence for a person to trespass into the site.</p><br>
<p>The Second Baptist Church, located at 441 Monroe Street within Greektown in Detroit, Michigan, is the oldest African-American church in the Midwestern United States. listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The church was organized in March 1836 by 13 former slaves who left the First Baptist Church due to discrimination. Second Baptist was Detroits seventh major church. With the Detroit River and Canadas border only a thousand yards away, the Second Baptist Church quickly undertook the mission of helping free slaves and constructed a room under the sanctuary where escaping slaves stayed until they could continue their journey. Church leaders assisted in creating the Amherstburg Baptist Association and the Canadian Anti-Slavery Baptist Association, each of which were abolitionist groups in Canada. From its founding until the end of the Civil War, the church served as a "station" on the Underground Railroad, hosting some 5,000 slaves before their eventual departure to Canada.</p><br>
<p>Second Baptist also opened the city&#39;s first school for black children in 1839, and in 1843 and 1865 hosted a "State Convention of Colored Citizens" to petition the Michigan government for Negro Suffrage. Ralph Bunche, who later became the first African-American to receive the Nobel Peace Prize, was baptized in the church. Second Baptist was instrumental in the formation of over 30 other African-American churches.</p><br>
<h2>Building</h2><br>
<p>The current building was erected in 1914 and contains three floors. It replaced an earlier structure which was destroyed by fire. Additions to the building were made in 1926 and 1968 and flank the original structure. The 1914 and 1926 buildings are brick with Gothic Revival accents in limestone.</p><br>
<p>The footprint of the 1914 building is rectangular with a gabled roof. The facade is dominated by a large lancet window with wood tracery. Below the window twin entrance doors inside gothic arches are framed by a crenolated parapet. The 1968 addition is in the Brutalist style and has four floors. Horizontal bands of windows wrap the second and third floors with fourth floor windows set into a grille of precast concrete. Below the windows of the second and third floors are precast concrete panels that also wrap the structure. The flat roof extends several feet on all sides to form a broad cornice.</p><br>
<h2>Current status</h2><br>
<p>The Second Baptist Church is a member of the predominantly black Progressive National Baptist Convention and of the predominantly white American Baptist Churches in the USA. Reverend Dr. Kevin M. Turman is the senior pastor, the 23rd person to hold that position at Second Baptist.</p><br>
<p>Kastro-Kyllini  is a former municipality in Elis, West Greece, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Andravida-Kyllini, of which it is a municipal unit. The municipal unit has an area of 49.322 km. The population was 3,622 in 2011. The municipality Kastro-Kyllini was created in 1999 as part of the Kapodistrias reform from the formerly independent communities Kyllini, Kato Panagia, Kastro and Neochori, that became municipal districts. After the 2011 Kallikratis reform, these municipal districts became  communities. Its seat of administration was the small port town of Kyllini.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Kastro-Kyllini is situated in the westernmost part of Elis and the Peloponnese, 12 km west of Andravida and about 40 km northwest of Pyrgos. It covers the northern part of the Kyllini peninsula, which juts into the Ionian Sea. The peninsula is covered with hills, but the area to the east of the peninsula is very flat. The Crusader fortress of Chlemoutsi is situated on the highest point of the peninsula, about 220 m above sea level. Between the northernmost point, Cape Kyllini, and the town Kyllini the ruins of the medieval town of Glarentza have been excavated. There are forests and olive groves in the hills. Agriculture is the dominant land use in the plains.</p><br>
<p>There are several popular beaches on the coast. The thermal springs of Kyllini (Loutra Kyllinis) are the largest beach facility in the western Peloponnese. There is a monastery, the Monastery of Blachernae, southeast of Kato Panagia. The small island Kafkalida, near Cape Kyllini, is uninhabited. It carries a lighthouse.</p><br>
<h3>Transportation</h3><br>
<p>There were two railway lines in Kastro-Kyllini. The Kavasila – Vartholomio – Kyllini railway branched off the Patras – Pyrgos railway at Kavasila, and ran to Kyllini via Vartholomio. A branch line ran from Vartholomio to Loutra Kyllinis. Both lines have been abandoned. Several secondary roads connect the villages.</p><br>
<h2>Subdivisions</h2><br>
<p>The municipal unit Kastro-Kyllini is subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets):</p><br>
<h3>Kyllini</h3><br>
<h3>Kato Panagia</h3><br>
<p>The community of Kato Panagia (Κάτω Παναγιά) consists of the villages Kato Panagia, Ikaros and Moni Vlachernon. The village Kato Panagia is directly adjacent to Kyllini, on the road to Lechaina. The village Ikaros is 3 km further east, also on the coast. Refugees from Asia Minor settled in Kato Panagia as a result of the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922).</p><br>
<h3>Kastro</h3><br>
<p>The community of Kastro (Κάστρο) consists of the town Kastro and the small villages Analipsi, Kalamia, Karavaki, Loutra Kyllinis and Psili Rachi. Kastro is 5 km south of Kyllini and 7 km northwest of Vartholomio. It is situated in the hills, and is dominated by the Chlemoutsi fortress. The name Kastro means "castle", and refers to Chlemoutsi. The fortress was built by prince Geoffrey I Villehardouin of the Principality of Achaea in 1220-1223, who called it Clairmont (from which Chlemoutsi is a derivation ). After the decline of the Principality the castle gradually lost its importance. Today it is as a monument and is sometimes used for concerts.</p><br>
<p>The thermal springs of Kyllini (Loutra Kyllinis) are 4 km southwest of Kastro, near the coast. It is a beach resort, surrounded by forests. The most famous baths also offers inhalation therapy, said to assist in asthma and skin problems. It is situated next to Roman ruins.</p><br>
<h3>Neochori</h3><br>
<p>The community of Neochori (Νεοχώρι) consists of the villages Neochori and Vytinaiika. Neochori is on the road from Kyllini to Lechaina, 6 km southeast of Kyllini and 6 km southwest of Lechaina. It is 3 km southwest of Myrsini and 3 km north of Machos. Neochori is in a flat, rural area.</p><br>
<p>The Hron  is a 298 km long left tributary of the Danube and the second-longest river in Slovakia. It flows from its source in the Low Tatra Mountains  through central and southern Slovakia, emptying into the Danube near Štúrovo and Esztergom. Major cities and towns on the Hron are Brezno, Banská Bystrica, Sliač, Zvolen, Žiar nad Hronom, Žarnovica, Nová Baňa, Tlmače, Levice, Želiezovce, and Štúrovo.</p><br>
<p>The rivers basin covers approximately 11 percent of Slovakias territory.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>The name is probably of Germanic origin; *Granahua: gran – spruce, ahua – water.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The name of the river was mentioned for the first time in 170, when Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius wrote his Meditations at the Hron (Granus) river. The first recorded medieval name was Gron (1075). From the 17th century until the 1930s, the river was used for wood transport.</p><br>
<p>Gulf of Sirte , or Gulf of Sidra  after the port of Sidra, is a body of water in the Mediterranean Sea on the northern coast of Libya. Historically it has been also known as the Great Sirte or Greater Syrtis .</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The Gulf of Sirte has been a major centre for tuna fishing in the Mediterranean for centuries. It gives its name to the city of Sirte situated on its western side.</p><br>
<p>The gulf measures 439 km from the promontory of Boreum (now Ras Teyonas) on the East side to the promontory of Cephalae (Ras Kasr Hamet) on the West. The greatest extension of the gulf inland is 177 km land inward and occupies an area of 57,000 square kilometers.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Ancient History</h3><br>
<p>Syrtis is referred to in the New Testament of the Bible where the Apostle Paul relates being sent in chains to Rome to stand trial before Caesar Nero. The crew of his ship was worried about being driven by a storm into Syrtis, and took precautions to prevent it, resulting, eventually, in being shipwrecked on the island of Malta in the Mediterranean Sea.</p><br>
<p>In ancient literature, the Syrtes (the Greater, or maiores, in the eastern and the Lesser, or minores, in the western part of the Gulf) were notorious sandbanks which sailors always took pains to avoid. The local climate features frequent calms and a more than usually powerful north wind. The shoreline between Cyrene in the east and Carthage in the west featured few ports.</p><br>
<p>Ancient writers frequently mention the sandbanks and their vicinity as dangerous for shipping. The Syrtes maiores are unusually tidal and feature a strong (3 knots) clockwise current, at the rising tide, which then switches when the tide ebbs. This feature may explain the curious corkscrew shape in the area on the Peutinger Table. The landward side was a featureless plain which contrasted with the fertility of the rest of Tripolitania, to the west.</p><br>
<p>Ancient writers mention sandstorms and serpents in this area. Strabo describes a march by the Roman general, Cato the Younger in 47 BC which took thirty days ‘ through deep and scorching sand’. Strabo also gives a full account of the dangers for shipping: the difficulty with both the Greater and the Lesser Syrtes is that in many places the water is shallow, and at the rise and fall of the tides ships sometimes fall into the shallows and settle there, and it is rare for them to be saved (17.3.20). Pomponius Mela gives a very melodramatic description:</p><br>
<p>The Syrtes … have no ports and are alarming because of the frequent shallows and even more dangerous because of the reversing movements of the sea as it flows in and out...then a second Syrtes, equal in name and nature to the first, but about twice the size (1.35–7).</p><br>
<p>These sources should not however be taken at face value: Mela goes on to say that there were no ports in the Greater Syrtes either, but his reliability on this point – and therefore presumably others – is highly questionable: Pseudo-Scylax, writing in the early 4th century BC, records a port in the larger gulf (109), and Strabo places a ‘very large emporium’ in the smaller one before Mela’s time (17.3.17). Furthermore, the ancient textual evidence is not unambiguous in its condemnation of the Syrtes. Plutarch gives a much less melodramatic account of Cato’s march than Strabo’s, saying (admittedly implausibly) that it took only seven days, and that locals were engaged to protect his troops from serpents (Cato Minor 56; see also the uneventful late 5th-century journey along the coast from Euesperides to Neapolis reported at Thucydides 7.50.2). And while Strabo pointed out the dangers of the sandbanks, he continues: On this account sailors travel along the coast at a distance, taking care lest they are caught off their guard and driven into these gulfs by winds. As in Cato, they do not avoid the area, but merely take precautions against its relative dangers. Similarly, Pliny’s warning that the gulf was ‘formidable because of the shallow and tidal water of the two Syrtes’ at Natural History 5.26 should be seen in the context of his broader claim in that work that all the coastlines of the Mediterranean were welcoming (NH 2.118).</p><br>
<p>Their infamous reputation is, however, found in Roman poetry, from Virgil (Aeneid IV, 41) on.</p><br>
<p>The information in this section is largely taken from The Syrtes between East and West by Josephine Crawley Quinn.</p><br>
<h3>World War II</h3><br>
<p>First Battle of Sirte, World War II naval battle between Regia Marina and Royal Navy in December 1941.</p><br>
<p>Second Battle of Sirte, World War II naval battle between Regia Marina and Royal Navy in March 1942.</p><br>
<h3>Cold War period</h3><br>
<p>After the coup détat which brought Muammar Gaddafi to power in 1969, there were a number of international incidents concerning territorial claims of the Gaddafi regime over the waters of the Gulf of Sirte. The gulf was generally referred to by the US military in those times as Gulf of Sidra&#39;, after the increasingly important oil port of Sidra on its shores.</p><br>
<h4>1973</h4><br>
<p>In 1973, Gaddafi claimed much of the Gulf of Sirte to be within Libyan internal waters by drawing a straight line at 32 degrees, 30 minutes north between a point near Benghazi and the western headland of the gulf at Misrata with an exclusive 62 nmi fishing zone.</p><br>
<p>Gaddafi declared it The Line of Death, the crossing of which would invite a military response. The US claimed its rights to conduct naval operations in international waters, using the modern international standard of 12 nmi territorial limit from a country&#39;s shore as defined by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea.</p><br>
<p>Gaddafi claimed it to be a territorial sea, not just a coastal area. In response the United States authorized Naval exercises in the Gulf of Sidra to conduct Freedom of Navigation (FON) operations.</p><br>
<p>On 21 March 1973, Libyan fighter planes intercepted and fired on a USA Air Force C-130 conducting signals intelligence off the Libyan coast. During the encounter, two Libyan Mirage fighters signaled the C-130 to follow them toward Libya and land, prompting the American plane to take evasive action. The C-130 received cannon fire from the Libyan fighters as it fled, but was able to escape by using cloud cover. According to US officials, the American plane was never closer than 120 kilometers from the Libyan coast.</p><br>
<h4>1980</h4><br>
<p>While operating over the Mediterranean Sea on 16 September 1980, a US Boeing RC-135U Combat Sent reconnaissance plane was fired on by a Libyan fighter. The RC-135 was not hit and the United States took no retaliatory action after the incident.</p><br>
<h4>1981</h4><br>
<p>In August 1981, during the United States Sixth Fleet Freedom of Navigation exercises, Libyan fighter planes were assembled from elsewhere in the country to fly patrols near the American ships. On 19 August, two Libyan Su-22 Fitter fighter-bombers were intercepted by two F-14 Tomcat fighters from the aircraft carrier Nimitz. During the engagement, one of the American planes was targeted by an air-to-air Atoll missile. After evading the missile, the Tomcats shot down both Libyan planes with Sidewinder missiles. According to some reports, the two Libyan pilots managed to eject and were rescued from the sea. According to other reports, the parachute of one of the Libyan pilots failed to open.</p><br>
<h4>1986</h4><br>
<p>In the spring of 1986, the USA Navy deployed three aircraft carrier task force groups, USS America, USS Coral Sea and USS Saratoga from the Sixth Fleet with 225 aircraft and some 30 warships across the "Line of Death" and into the disputed Gulf of Sidra. After a day of armed conflict, the operation was terminated after an unknown number of human and materiel losses to the Libyan side and no losses to the American side.</p><br>
<p>Two weeks later on 5 April 1986, a bomb exploded in a West Berlin disco, La Belle, killing two American servicemen, a Turkish woman and wounding 200 others. The United States claimed to have obtained cable transcripts from Libyan agents in East Germany involved in the attack. After several days of diplomatic talks with European and Arab partners, President Ronald Reagan ordered eighteen F-111F strike aircraft of the 48th Tactical Fighter Wing, flying from RAF Lakenheath supported by four EF-111A Ravens of the 20th Tactical Fighter Wing, from RAF Upper Heyford in England to strike targets in Libya in conjunction with fifteen A-6, A-7, F/A-18 attack aircraft and EA-6B Prowler Electronic Warfare Aircraft from the aircraft carriers USS Saratoga, USS America and USS Coral Sea on station in the Gulf of Sidra. The planes flying from Britain had to fly over the Atlantic, down the coast of Spain, and then turn east into the Mediterranean because the French and Spanish governments refused permission to use their airspace for the attack. This necessitated use of mid-air refueling. The attack lasted about ten minutes, hitting several targets early on 15 April. Two American airmen were killed when their plane was shot down over the Gulf of Sidra. Forty-five Libyan soldiers and government officials and fifteen civilians were also killed.</p><br>
<h4>1989</h4><br>
<p>In 1989, in another Gulf of Sidra incident, two Libyan MiG-23 Flogger aircraft were shot down when it was believed they were about to attack the USA fighters that were in the area. In this instance, the Flogger pilots were reportedly lost when they were fired on and successfully shot down after a series of missile launches, although they were seen to eject and parachute into the sea.</p><br>
<h3>Libyan civil war</h3><br>
<p>First Battle of Brega, 2 March</p><br>
<p>Battle of Ra&#39;s Lanuf, 4–12 March</p><br>
<p>Battle of Bin Jawad, 6 March</p><br>
<p>Second Battle of Brega, 13–15 March</p><br>
<p>First Gulf of Sidra offensive, 26–30 March</p><br>
<p>Third Battle of Brega, 31 March – 6 April</p><br>
<p>Second Gulf of Sidra offensive, 22 August – 20 October</p><br>
<p>Battle of Sirte, 15 September – 20 October</p><br>
<p>Eretria  is a town in Euboea, Greece, facing the coast of Attica across the narrow South Euboean Gulf. It was an important Greek polis in the 6th/5th century BC, mentioned by many famous writers and actively involved in significant historical events. Excavations of the ancient city began in the 1890s and have been conducted since 1964 by the Greek Archaeological Service  and the Swiss School of Archaeology in Greece.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Prehistory</h3><br>
<p>The first evidence for human activity in the area of Eretria are pottery shards and stone artefacts from the late Neolithic period (3500-3000 BC) found on the acropolis as well as in the plain. No permanent structures have yet been found. It is therefore unclear whether a permanent settlement existed at that time.</p><br>
<p>The first known settlement from the Early Helladic period (3000-2000 BC) was located in the plain. A granary and several other buildings as well as a pottery kiln have been found so far. This settlement was moved to the top of the Acropolis in the Middle Helladic period (2000-1600 BC), because the plain was flooded by the nearby lagoon. In the Late Helladic period (1600-1100 BC), the population dwindled and the remains found so far have been interpreted as an observation post. The site was abandoned during the Greek Dark Ages.</p><br>
<h3>Archaic to Roman period</h3><br>
<p>The oldest archaeological finds date the foundation of the city to the 9th century BC. It was probably founded as the harbour of Lefkandi, which is located 15 km to the west. The name comes from the Greek ἐρέτης, erétēs, rower, and the verb ἐρέσσειν/ἐρέττειν, eréssein/eréttein, to row, which makes Eretria the "City of the Rowers". Eretrias population and importance increased at the same time as Lefkandi began to decline in importance from c. 825 BC onwards. The natural superiority of Eretrias harbour and the importance of trade to the Euboeans is one explanation for this gradual population migration from Lefkandi to Eretria.</p><br>
<p>The earliest surviving mention of Eretria was by Homer (Iliad 2.537), who listed Eretria as one of the Greek cities which sent ships to the Trojan War. In the 8th century BC, Eretria and her near neighbour and rival, Chalcis, were both powerful and prosperous trading cities. Eretria controlled the Aegean islands of Andros, Tenos and Ceos. They also held territory in Boeotia on the Greek mainland. Eretria was also involved in the Greek colonisation and founded the colonies of Pithekoussai and Cumae in Italy together with Chalcis.</p><br>
<p>At the end of the 8th century BC, however, Eretria and Chalcis fought a prolonged war (known mainly from the account in Thucydides as the Lelantine War) for control of the fertile Lelantine plain. Little is known of the details of this war, but it is clear that Eretria was defeated. The city was destroyed and Eretria lost her lands in Boeotia and her Aegean dependencies. Neither Eretria nor Chalcis ever again counted for much in Greek politics. As a result of this defeat, Eretria turned to colonisation. She planted colonies in the northern Aegean, on the coast of Macedon, in Italy and Sicily.</p><br>
<p>The Eretrians were Ionians and were thus natural allies of Athens. When the Ionian Greeks in Asia Minor rebelled against Persia in 499 BC, Eretria joined Athens in sending aid to the rebels, because Miletus supported Eretria in the Lelantine War. As a result, Darius made a point of punishing Eretria during his invasion of Greece. In 490 BC the city was sacked and burned by the Persians under the admiral Datis and the population was deported to Arderikka in Susiana. The temple of Apollo, built around 510 BC, was destroyed by the Persians. Parts of a pediment were found in 1900, including the torso of an Athena statue.</p><br>
<p>Eretria was rebuilt shortly afterwards and took part with 600 hoplites in the Battle of Plataea (479 BC). The ancient writer Plutarch mentions a woman of Eretria, "who was kept by Artabanus" at the Persian court of Artaxerxes, who facilitated the audience that Themistocles obtained with the Persian king. During the fifth century BC the whole of Euboea became part of the Delian League, which later became the Athenian Empire. Eretria and other cities of Euboea rebelled unsuccessfully against Athens in 446 BC. During the Peloponnesian War Eretria was an Athenian ally against her Dorian rivals Sparta and Corinth. But soon the Eretrians, along with the rest of the Empire, found Athenian domination oppressive. When the Spartans defeated the Athenians at the Battle of Eretria in 411 BC, the Euboean cities all rebelled.</p><br>
<p>After her eventual defeat by Sparta in 404 BC, Athens soon recovered and re-established her hegemony over Euboea, which was an essential source of grain for the urban population. The Eretrians rebelled again in 349 BC and this time the Athenians could not recover control. In 343 BC supporters of Philip II of Macedon gained control of the city, but the Athenians under Demosthenes recaptured it in 341 BC.</p><br>
<h4>Macedonian Period</h4><br>
<p>The Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC, in which Philip defeated the combined armies of the Greeks, marked the end of the Greek cities as independent states. However, under Macedonian rule Eretria experienced a new period of prosperity which lasted until the 3rd century as attested by many inscriptions, by extensions to the west and south sections of the walls and by many other private and public new buildings including the circus.</p><br>
<p>From 318-312BC King Cassander lived at Eretria and commissioned the painter Philoxenus of Eretria to paint the battle of Issus, of which the famous Alexander Mosaic in the Naples museum is a copy and the wall paintings in Phillip&#39;s tomb at Vergina are connected.</p><br>
<p>From 304BC Demetrius I granted the city partial autonomy. During this time the city was governed by Menedemos who founded the Eretrian school of philosophy. After the Chremonidean War (267-262BC) a permanent Macedonian garrison was installed.</p><br>
<h4>Roman Period</h4><br>
<p>In 198 BC in the Second Macedonian War Eretria was plundered by the Romans. The admiral Lucius Quinctius Flamininus was joined by the allied fleets of Attalus I of Pergamon and of Rhodes, and used them in besieging Eretria. He eventually took the town during a night-time assault during which the citizens surrendered. Flamininus came away with a large collection of art works as his share of the booty.</p><br>
<p>Eretria became an object of contention between the Romans and Macedonians, but was given partial independence and experienced a new period of prosperity. Under the Romans, athletic contests for children and youths called the Romaia were held.</p><br>
<p>In 87 BC it was finally destroyed in the First Mithridatic War and gradually declined further.</p><br>
<h2>Site monuments</h2><br>
<p>Many remains of the ancient city can be seen today including:</p><br>
<p>Parts of the city walls and gates (of 4km length)</p><br>
<p>The Theatre</p><br>
<p>Palaces I and II</p><br>
<p>Upper and Lower Gymnasiums</p><br>
<p>House of the mosaics</p><br>
<p>The Baths</p><br>
<p>Temple of Apollo Daphnephoros</p><br>
<p>Temple of Artemis</p><br>
<p>Temple of Isis</p><br>
<p>Temple of Dionysos</p><br>
<p>The Acropolis</p><br>
<p>Macedonian tomb</p><br>
<h3>Temple of Apollo Daphnephoros</h3><br>
<p>The temple of Apollo Daphnephoros is the most important and wider known monument of Eretria, featuring sparkling and sharp sculptures on the pediments, their postures well in advance of experiments in Athens of the time. Together with its enclosure it constituted the sacred temenos of Apollo, a religious centre and fundamental place of worship within the core of the ancient city, to the north of the Agora. According to the Homeric hymn to Apollo, when the god was seeking for a location to found its oracle, he arrived to the Lelantine plain. The first temple is dated to the Geometric period and was situated probably near the harbour, as the sea then reached the area of the Agora. The hecatompedon (hundred-footer) apsidal edifice is the earliest in its type among those mentioned by Homer, and slightly after the hecatompedon temple of Hera on the island of Samos. It was flanked to the south by another apsidal building which also came to light: the so-called Daphniforio or "space with laurels" (7.5 x 11.5m) is the most ancient edifice in Eretria, related to the early cult of Apollo in Delphi. At the centre of this edifice were preserved the clay bases supporting the laurel trunks that propped up the roof. In the early sixteenth century a second hecatompedon temple was erected through earth fills upon its Geometric predecessor, on a solid artificial terrace. This temple had wooden columns (six at the narrow sides and nineteen at the longer sides), and was subsequently covered with earth in order to build the later and most renowned of all temples in the city.</p><br>
<p>Construction started at the late sixth century BC (520-490 BC) and the temple was perhaps still unfinished when the Persians razed the city in 490 BC. Poros stone and marble were the materials used for this Doric peristyle (surrounded by colonnades) temple (6 x 14 columns). It had a prodomos (anteroom) and an opisthodomos (back section) arranged with two columns in antis; the cella (in Greek sek?s) was divided into three naves by two interior colonnades. After the destruction of the city by the Persians, the temple was repaired and remained in use; yet in 198 BC it was destroyed again, this time by the Romans, a fact which initiated the gradual abandonment and dilapidation of the monument until the first century BC. Some important sculptures were found and are displayed in the Chalcis museum. One of the Amazons was salvaged in antiquity and carried off to Rome. Unfortunately, the majority of architectural parts from this temple and other sanctuaries of the city were re-used as construction material; only a few (column) drums together with fragmented capitals and triglyphs remain from the superstructure of the monument.</p><br>
<p>Of the sumptuous sculptural decoration survive only parts of the west pediment featuring in relief the fight of the Amazons (or Amazonomachy, a usual motif for the iconography at the time). The centre was occupied by Athena and is partially preserved, depicting her trunk with the Gorgoneion on the thorax; a superb work of art is the complex of Theseus and Antiope marked by sensitivity and softness of the form, internal force and clarity, despite the ornamental tendency obvious in the coiffures and the folds of their clothes. These sculptures are impregnated by the rules of archaic plasticity; the analogies are rendered in an innovative manner, a precursor to the idealization and the force of the classical art. The entire composition supposedly featured chariots to Athenas right and left, one chariot presumably carrying Theseus and Antiope, while Hercules might ride the other, and the picture could be complemented by fighting Amazons and a dead warrior. The east pediment possibly narrated the Gigantomachy (fight of the Giants). The details of the faces and the clothes were coloured, thus rendering the depiction more vivid. Fragmented sculptures that may be part of the temple after the destruction by the Persians (warrior, Amazon and Athenas trunk) have been located in Rome. Today are visible only the foundations of the Post-Archaic temple, as well as remains of the Geometric temples uncovered in lower deposits.</p><br>
<p>The temples in the temenos of Apollo Daphniforos were excavated between 1899 and 1910 by Κ. Kourouniotis. Further investigations were conducted by Mrs. I. Konstantinou and by the Swiss Archaeological School.</p><br>
<h3>The ancient theatre of Eretria</h3><br>
<p>The most impressive monument of ancient Eretria, one of the oldest known theatres, lies in the western section of town, between the western gate, the stadium and the upper gymnasium; the temple of Dionysos was found at its south-west end. As indicated by the architectural remains of the scene, the initial construction phase followed the invasion by the Persians and the reconstruction of the city in the fifth century BC, whereas the fourth century BC marked the site&#39;s peak.</p><br>
<p>A striking fact is the construction of the cavea (gr.: koilo, auditorium) on an artificial hill surrounded by numerous retaining walls, instead of taking advantage of the citadel&#39;s slopes. During the first building phase, the scene looked like a palace, disposed of five adjacent rectangle rooms and found itself at the same level as the circular orchestra, leading to it via three entrances. At its peak (fourth century BC), the theatre suffered transformations and was shaped to a large extent in its present form. The cavea comprised eleven tiers divided by ten staircases. The circular orchestra was transferred for 8m to the north, and was lowered by 3m. The scene was amplified by two backstages connected through a portico with an Ionic façade, thus raising above the orchestra. This difference in heights was evened up by a vaulted underground gallery, leading through the scene to the centre of the orchestra; this was in all probability the "charonian stairway" (stairs of Hades) allowing actors impersonating chthonic deities and the dead to appear and perform at the orchestra. Local poros stone was used for the foundation and limestone for the parodoi (passageways), which sloped to the orchestra in order to diminish the difference in height with the cavea. The theatre seated 6,300 spectators and is reminiscent in form to the Theatre of Dionysos in Athens, after transformation of the latter in 330 BC. Following the destruction of Eretria by the Romans in 198 BC, it was rebuilt with lower quality materials and the rooms to the south of the parodos were then apparently decorated with colour mortars of the first Pompeian style.</p><br>
<p>Unfortunately, most benches have been looted. There are still the impressive remains of the scene, especially the vaulted underground passage leading to the orchestra centre. Excavation of the monument was undertaken by the American Archaeological School, while the local Ephorate of Antiquities strived greatly for its restoration.</p><br>
<h3>Temple of Isis</h3><br>
<p>Among the most interesting monuments of ancient Eretria is the Iseion, a temple sacred to the goddess Isis and other Egyptian deities. Situated to the south of the town, between the baths and the Lower Gymnasium or the palaistra (wrestling area), it extends behind the small harbour, a detail that correlates the temenos with merchants who had their interests in Eretria. According to excavation and inscription testimonies, the temple was probably built in the fourth century BC and was surrounded by other edifices and auxiliary spaces. The initiation to the cult of Isis and the Egyptian deities occurred during the Hellenistic period by Greek merchants who came to Greece from Egypt after the unification of the then known world by Alexander the Great. Their worship in Eretria has also been attested by inscriptions, of which the most important is set on a limestone block to the left of the prodomos (anteroom) before the cella.</p><br>
<p>The temple of Isis was initially simple and oriented to the east, with a prodomos that was distyle (two-columned) in antis. The ceremonial clay statue of the goddess stood on a base within the cella. In front of the temple was the altar and nearby a small drain tank. The temple was reconstructed after the destruction of the city by the Romans in 198 BC: it then acquired a larger external prodomos on ameliorated foundations and was surrounded by porticoes on three sides (north, south and west). Only the south-west end of the portico was covered by a roof. The columns were later replaced by a parapet. At the centre of the east forecourt was a portal facing the entrance of the sanctuary. Fifteen more edifices and auxiliary spaces lied to the north, considered by the excavators as places of purification. Among them was a courtyard and an andren (dining hall for male residents), while one room of the complex had a superb mosaic floor featuring lozenges.</p><br>
<p>Excavations at the temenos sacred to Isis and other Egyptian deities were conducted in 1917 by the then Ephor of Antiquities for the island of Evia (Euboea), Ι. Papadakis. In recent years, the Archaeological Service of the Ministry of Culture undertook further excavations in the wider area of the temple, which brought to light an additional complex of courtyards and rooms directly related to the sanctuary.</p><br>
<h3>House with the mosaics</h3><br>
<p>This splendid house was built in ca. 370 B.C. and remained in use for about a century. It is distinguished by its floors, covered with elegant pebble mosaics representing mythological scenes: Nereids on the back of a seahorse, legendary battles between Arimaspians and griffins, sphinxes and panthers. The building is a representative specimen of the Classical and Hellenistic domestic architecture.</p><br>
<p>In the first century BC a funerary monument with a massive rectangular peribolos was erected over the ruins of the house.</p><br>
<p>The monument was excavated between 1975 and 1980.</p><br>
<h3>Macedonian tomb of Erotes</h3><br>
<p>The so-called "tomb of Erotes" lies on a hill to the northwest of Eretria city and counts among the most significant monuments of Evia island. Based on the findings, it is dated to the fourth century BC, the time when these characteristic burial monuments of the Macedonian type make their appearance in southern Greece after the descent of the Macedons. More Macedonian tombs were found in the wider area around Eretria, namely in the settlements of Kotroni and Amarynthos.</p><br>
<p>The tomb of Erotes consists of a single vaulted chamber and a dromos (entrance passageway) of stone and bricks. The burial chamber is reminiscent of a residential room; it is built of poros stone plastered with white mortar. During the excavation were found two replicas of painted stone thrones bearing relief decoration. At the rear corners of the burial chamber were two marble bed-shaped sarcophagi. The tomb had been pillaged. Among the findings today exhibited in the New York Metropolitan Museum, are bronze vases and clay statuettes of Erotes (Amors), which inspired the tomb&#39;s conventional name. Above the tomb was uncovered a stone-built construction, probably the basis of a sepulchre.</p><br>
<p>The monument was excavated in 1897 and is well preserved to date.</p><br>
<h3>Tholos</h3><br>
<p>Excavations carried out by the Greek Archaeological Service have revealed the limestone foundations and crepis of a circular building. It was erected in the fifth century BC in the Agora of the city, and underwent several modifications in the fourth and the third centuries BC. A circular bothros has also survived at the centre of the monument.</p><br>
<h2>Eretria today</h2><br>
<p>The modern town of Eretria is now a popular beachside resort. The historic and archaeological finds from Eretria and Lefkandi are displayed in the, established by the Swiss School of Archaeology in Greece.</p><br>
<p>The town can be reached from Skala Oropou, Attica by ferry or via Halkida by road. It is an important station on the way to the south of the island. It has many taverns and a long beach promenade. The archaeological excavations are located on the northern edge of the modern town.</p><br>
<h2>Municipality</h2><br>
<p>The municipality Eretria was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following two former municipalities, that became municipal units:</p><br>
<p>Amarynthos</p><br>
<p>Eretria</p><br>
<p>The municipality has an area of 168.557 km, the municipal unit 58.648 km.</p><br>
<h2>Historical population</h2><br>
<h2>Notable people</h2><br>
<p>Achaeus, tragic playwright</p><br>
<p>Menedemus (345/4-261/0 BC), Greek philosopher</p><br>
<p>Philoxenus (4th century BC), painter</p><br>
<p>Chateau Marmont is a hotel located at 8221 Sunset Boulevard in Los Angeles, California. The hotel was designed by architect William Douglas Lee and completed in 1929. It was modeled loosely after the Château dAmboise, a royal retreat in Frances Loire Valley.</p><br>
<p>The hotel has 63 rooms and suites.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1926, Fred Horowitz, a prominent Los Angeles attorney, chose the site at Marmont Lane and Sunset Boulevard to construct an apartment building. Horowitz had recently traveled to Europe for inspiration and returned to California with photos of a Gothic Chateau along the Loire River. In 1927, Horowitz commissioned his brother-in-law, European-trained architect Arnold A. Weitzman, to design the seven-story, L-shaped building based on his French photos. When deciding upon a name for the building, Chateau Sunset and Chateau Hollywood were rejected in favor of Chateau Marmont, a name conceived by the small street running across the front of the property.</p><br>
<p>On February 1, 1929, Chateau Marmont opened its doors to the public as the newest residence of Hollywood. Local newspapers described the Chateau as "Los Angeles&#39;s newest, finest and most exclusive apartment house superbly situated, close enough to active businesses to be accessible and far enough away to insure quiet and privacy." For the inaugural reception, over 300 people passed through the site, including local press.</p><br>
<p>Due to the high rents and inability to keep tenants for long-term commitments during the depression, Fred Horowitz chose to sell the apartment building to Albert E. Smith for $750,000 in cash. In 1931, Chateau Marmont was converted into a hotel. The apartments became suites with kitchens and living rooms. The property was also refurbished with antiques from depression-era estate sales.</p><br>
<p>Designed and constructed to be earthquake proof, Chateau Marmont survived major earthquakes in 1933, 1953, 1971, 1987 and 1994 without sustaining any major structural damage. Nine Spanish cottages, as well as a swimming pool, were built next to the hotel in the 1930s and were acquired by the hotel in the 1940s. Craig Ellwood designed two of the four bungalows in 1956, after he completed Case Study Houses. During the 1930s, the hotel was managed by former silent film actress Ann Little. During the 1940s, the hotel served as an air-raid shelter for residents in the surrounding area.</p><br>
<p>On March 24, 1976, Chateau Marmont was named one of Los Angeles&#39; Historical-Cultural Landmarks.</p><br>
<h2>Operations and restoration</h2><br>
<p>The hotel was acquired and restored in 1990 by André Balazs. Updating the property was a notable task as he faced the need to modernize the hotel, while also receiving pressure from the hotels dedicated fans to preserve Chateau Marmonts character.</p><br>
<p>For the restoration, Balazs strove to create the illusion that the hotel had been untouched notwithstanding renovations. The entire facility was re-carpeted, repainted and the public spaces were upgraded.</p><br>
<h2>Restaurant and Bar Marmont</h2><br>
<p>The hotel restaurant terrace and Bar Marmont both feature market-fresh California cuisine from chef Dean Yasharian.</p><br>
<h2>Hollywood landmark</h2><br>
<p>Throughout the years, Chateau Marmont has gained recognition. Director Sofia Coppola shot her film Somewhere at the hotel in 2010. The opening scene of the indie neo-noir film The Canyons was shot at the Bar Marmont. The hotel was also a location for Oliver Stone&#39;s The Doors. Singer Lana Del Rey alludes to the hotel in her song "Off to the Races" from her album Born to Die. It is also the office of fictional paparazzi Patrick Immleman in the Panel Syndicate web comic The Private Eye.</p><br>
<p>Sharon Tate and husband Roman Polanski took up a short-term residency in 1968, as did Jim Morrison in 1970.</p><br>
<p>Billy Wilder, Hunter S. Thompson, Annie Leibovitz, Dorothy Parker, Bruce Weber, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Tim Burton, Jay McInerney, Terry Richardson, Death Grips and Ville Valo, among others, have also produced work from within the hotel&#39;s walls. John Belushi died of a drug overdose in Bungalow 3 on March 5, 1982.</p><br>
<p>The hotel features in The Big Nowhere, the second of James Ellroys L.A. Quartet novels. It is also mentioned in Charles Bukowskis major work Hollywood, Father John Mistys song "Chateau Lobby #4 (in C for Two Virgins), and is the setting of the Grateful Dead song "West L.A. Fadeaway". It is also mentioned in William Monahans movie London Boulevard (around 1:19:00 during the scene in bedroom).</p><br>
<p>The hotel makes a brief appearance in the 2016 musical film La La Land.</p><br>
<p>Muscle Beach refers to the exclusive Santa Monica location of the birthplace of the physical fitness boom in the US during the 20th century, started in 1934 with predominantly gymnastics activities on the south side of the Santa Monica Pier. Muscle Beach Venice is the contemporary title of the outdoor weightlifting platform constructed in Venice, California, a distinct neighborhood in the city of Los Angeles, 18 years after Muscle Beach was established.</p><br>
<p>Muscle Beach Venice was officially titled in 1987 by the City of Los Angeles with the distinguishing name Venice added to the location to honor the original Santa Monica site. The contemporary Muscle Beach Venice is located two blocks north of Venice Boulevard on Ocean Front Walk in Venice, California.</p><br>
<p>Santa Monicas "Muscle Beach" landmark derives its name from the growing local and national reputation of gymnastics and strength athletes who congregated at what was first known simply as the "Santa Monica Beach Playground", with the muscle&#39; term gaining momentum by 1940. The 1940 opening of the first of an eventual nationwide chain of weightlifting gyms by famed pioneer gym chain operator, Vic Tanny, only two city blocks from Muscle Beach in Santa Monica, is commonly considered a key contributor to the increasing attraction of bodybuilders and strength lifters to Muscle Beach from across the nation.</p><br>
<p>By the 1950s, Muscle Beach established worldwide fame and helped to popularize and bring legitimacy to physical culture with acrobatics and bodybuilding and contribute to a nationwide health and fitness movement continuing into the 21st century.</p><br>
<h2>Original Muscle Beach</h2><br>
<p>Muscle Beach dates back to the 1930s when the Works Progress Administration (WPA) installed exercise equipment immediately south of the Santa Monica Pier in Santa Monica, California. Popular gymnastic and acrobatic exhibitions were routinely held there on city-provided equipment. A platform on the beach with weight lifting equipment provided a workout area for such famous bodybuilders as Vic Tanny, Jack LaLanne, and Joe Gold. Muscle House was a "crashpad" just off the beach where many bodybuilders would live for cheap rent and convenient access to the beach. It was a common waypoint for bodybuilders such as Chet Yorton, Steve Reeves, Vince Edwards, Jack Delinger, George Eiferman, and Dave Draper.</p><br>
<p>The site of Muscle Beach Venice has inherited the modern fame and attention that was initially generated by Muscle Beach in Santa Monica, as the tumbling platform from this earlier facility had been removed by the City of Santa Monica due to difficulties in the day-to-day maintenance and supervision of the original Muscle Beach site in 1959. Yet the original regulars of Muscle Beach in Santa Monica continued to congregate at the world-famous setting with an emphasis on gymnastics events, acrobatics and adagio training and performances.</p><br>
<p>In 1989, the City of Santa Monica officially rededicated the original Muscle Beach and today it serves gymnasts, acrobats and youth with an extensive gymnastics training area. Meanwhile, the City of Los Angeles Recreation and Parks Department has continued the primary barbell, weightlifting and bodybuilding aspects and events of the original Muscle Beach fame at the Venice weight pen. In 1987, the City of Los Angeles officially dedicated "Muscle Beach Venice" with the added word of Venice in the title to distinguish it from the original "Muscle Beach" in Santa Monica.</p><br>
<h2>Muscle Beach Venice</h2><br>
<p>After the closing of the original Muscle Beach, bodybuilding attention shifted south to the somewhat lesser-known Venice Beach Weight Pen, operated by the Los Angeles Recreation and Parks Department. A small spartan weight pen was built near Windward Avenue in 1952, later replaced by the large current facility (33.9854557&deg;N latitude, 118.4725901&deg;W longitude) during a complete renovation and Muscle Beach Venice redevelopment effort in 1990, which sports a huge concrete barbell on the roof and bleachers for spectators.</p><br>
<p>Today it is an open playground with a gated area that encloses weight lifting equipment, the second area is a sand box with gymnastic, rope climbing, and acrobatic bars.</p><br>
<p>By extension, Muscle Beach Venice refers also to a high concentration of weightlifting and fitness businesses in the area. Dave Draper, Larry Scott, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Danny Trejo, and Crips co-founder Stanley Tookie Williams used to be regulars, among many famous bodybuilders and actors who have trained there. Chet Yorton trained at Muscle Beach Venice in the early to mid-1960s to prepare for his victory over Arnold Schwarzenegger in the 1966 NABBA Mr. Universe contest.</p><br>
<p>Mount Robson is the most prominent mountain in North America&#39;s Rocky Mountain range; it is also the highest point in the Canadian Rockies. The mountain is located entirely within Mount Robson Provincial Park of British Columbia, and is part of the Rainbow Range. Mount Robson is the second highest peak entirely in British Columbia, behind Mount Waddington in the Coast Range. The south face of Mount Robson is clearly visible from the Yellowhead Highway , and is commonly photographed along this route.</p><br>
<p>Mount Robson was likely named after Colin Robertson, who worked for both the North West Company and the Hudson’s Bay Company at various times in the early 19th century, though there was confusion over the name as many assumed it to have been named for John Robson, an early premier of British Columbia. The Texqakallt, a Secwepemc people and the earliest inhabitants of the area, call it Yuh-hai-has-kun, The Mountain of the Spiral Road. Other unofficial names include Cloud Cap Mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>Mount Robson boasts great vertical relief over the local terrain. From Kinney Lake, the south-west side of the mountain rises 2,975 m to the summit. The north face of Mount Robson is heavily glaciated and 800 m of ice extends from the summit to Berg Glacier.</p><br>
<p>The north face can be seen from Berg Lake, reached by a 19 km hike. The lake is approximately two km long and lies at 1,646 m elevation. There are backcountry campgrounds at each end of the lake and a log shelter on its banks, named Hargreaves Shelter in honor of the Hargreaves family who operated the Mount Robson Ranch across the Fraser River from the mountain and who outfitted most of the early trips into Berg Lake. The Berg glacier calves directly into the lake. The Robson Glacier, which fills the cirque and valley between Mount Robson and Mount Resplendent, in the early 1900s fed directly into both Berg lake and Adolphus lake, straddling the Continental Divide and draining thus to both the Arctic and Pacific oceans via the Smoky and Robson Rivers, respectively. It since has receded more than 2 kilometres and is the source of the Robson River only.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In 1893, five years after the expedition of A.P. Coleman to Athabasca Pass and the final settling of the mistaken elevations of Mt. Hooker and Mt. Brown, Mt. Robson was first surveyed by James McEvoy and determined to be the highest peak in the Canadian Rockies. The first documented ascent of Mount Robson, led by the young guide Conrad Kain, at its time the hardest ice face to be climbed on the continent, was achieved during the 1913 annual expedition organized by a large party of Alpine Club of Canada members who made use of the newly completed Grand Trunk Pacific railway to access the area. Prior to 1913, it had been necessary to approach the mountain by pack train from Edmonton or Laggan via Jasper and Lucerne, so only few intrepid explorers had made previous attempts at exploring the mountain. The most famous early ascensionist was the Reverend George Kinney, a founding member of the Alpine Club, who on his twelfth attempt in August 1909 claimed to have reached the summit with local outfitter Donald "Curly" Phillips. A major controversy over this claim and over the implausible nature of his unlikely and dangerous route dominated the discourse within the Alpine Club elite, and he is now generally presumed to have reached the high summit ridge before being turned back at the final ice dome of the peak. Kinney Lake, below the south face, is named in his honour.</p><br>
<h2>Climbing</h2><br>
<p>The 1,500 m Emperor Face on the northwest side provides the most formidable challenge to elite climbers on the mountain, though the more popular routes are the Kain route and the southeast face. The Kain route follows the first ascent&#39;s path up the entire length of the Robson Glacier from its terminus above Robson Pass to the upper northeast face and the summit ridge. Mount Robson has a high failure rate on climbing to the top, with only about 10% of attempts being successful. Although the mountain is under 4,000 m, there is no easy way to the summit and bad weather commonly rebuffs most summit attempts.</p><br>
<p>The main routes on Mount Robson include:</p><br>
<p>South Face (Normal Route) IV</p><br>
<p>Kain Face IV (named after Conrad Kain)</p><br>
<p>Wishbone Arete IV 5.6</p><br>
<p>Emperor Ridge V 5.6</p><br>
<p>Emperor Face, Stump/Logan VI 5.9 A2</p><br>
<p>Emperor Face, Cheesmond/Dick VI 5.9 A2</p><br>
<p>Emperor Face, Infinite Patience VI WI5 M5 5.9</p><br>
<p>Emperor Face, House-Haley M7</p><br>
<p>North Face IV</p><br>
<p>Fuhrer Ridge IV 5.4</p><br>
<p>The Bay of Islands is an area on the east coast of the Far North District of the North Island of New Zealand. It is one of the most popular fishing, sailing and tourist destinations in the country, and has been renowned internationally for its big-game fishing since American author Zane Grey publicised it in the 1930s. It is 60 km north-west of the city of Whangarei. Cape Reinga, at the northern tip of the country, is about 210 km by road further to the north-west.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>The bay itself is an irregularly-shaped 16 km-wide, 260 km of which the largest is Urupukapuka, and numerous peninsulas and inlets. The three largest inlets are Waikare Inlet in the south, and Kerikeri and Te Puna (Mangonui) inlets in the north-west. The Purerua Peninsula, north of Te Puna Inlet, separates the north-western part of the bay from the Pacific Ocean, and Cape Brett Peninsula extends 10 km into the ocean at the eastern end of the bay. The biggest town is Kerikeri, followed by Paihia. The small town of Russell is located at the end of a short peninsula that extends into the bay from the southeast.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>About 700 years ago, the Mataatua, one of the large Māori migration canoes which journeyed to New Zealand from Hawaiki, was sailed to the Bay of Islands (from the Bay of Plenty) by Puhi, a progenitor of the Ngāpuhi iwi (tribe) which today is the largest in the country. Māori settled and multiplied throughout the bay and on several of its many islands to establish various tribes such as the Ngāti Miru at Kerikeri. Many notable Māori were born in the Bay of Islands, including Hone Heke who several times cut down the flagpole at Kororāreka (Russell) to start the Flagstaff War.</p><br>
<p>Many of the Māori settlements later played important roles in the development of New Zealand, such as Okiato (the nation’s first capital), Waitangi (where the Treaty of Waitangi would later be signed) and Kerikeri, (which was an important departure point for inland Māori going to sea, and later site of the first permanent mission station in the country). Some of the islands became notable as well, such as Te Pahi Island where 60 of chief Te Pahi&#39;s people were killed as revenge after he was wrongly accused of being responsible for the Boyd Massacre at Whangaroa.</p><br>
<p>The first European to visit the area was Captain Cook, who named the region in 1769. The Bay of Islands was the first area in New Zealand to be settled by Europeans. Whalers arrived towards the end of the 18th century, while the first missionaries settled in 1814. The first full-blooded European child recorded as being born in the country, Thomas King, was born in 1815 at Oihi Bay in the Bay of Islands. (There have been unsubstantiated claims that a European girl was born earlier at the Dusky Sound settlement in the South Island).</p><br>
<p>The bay has many interesting historic towns including Paihia, Russell, Waitangi and Kerikeri. Russell, formerly known as Kororāreka, was the first permanent European settlement in New Zealand, and dates from the early 19th century. Kerikeri contains many historic sites from the earliest European colonial settlement in the country. These include the Mission House, also called Kemp House, which is the oldest wooden structure still standing in New Zealand. The Stone Store, a former storehouse, is the oldest stone building in New Zealand, construction having begun on 19 April 1832.</p><br>
<p>In a 2006 study, the Bay of Islands was found to have the second bluest sky in the world, after Rio de Janeiro.</p><br>
<h2>Cream Trip</h2><br>
<p>In 1886, Albert Ernest Fuller launched the sailing ship Undine in the Bay of Islands to deliver coal supplies to the islands within the Bay. With the fitting of a motor in the early 20th century, Fuller was able to deliver the coal and essential supplies to communities as far out as Cape Brett.</p><br>
<p>In 1927 Fuller acquired the "Cream Trip" from Eddie Lane – with the facilities on board to transport cream from the islands, and by the 1960s, the newly commissioned Bay Belle started this run.</p><br>
<p>Although a modern catamaran now takes this historical route of the original Cream Trip, the Bay Belle continues to transport visitors and locals between Paihia and Russell throughout the day.</p><br>
<p>Kīlauea  is a currently active shield volcano in the Hawaiian Islands, and the most active of the five volcanoes that together form the island of Hawaii. Located along the southern shore of the island, the volcano is between 300,000 and 600,000 years old and emerged above sea level about 100,000 years ago. It is the second youngest product of the Hawaiian hotspot and the current eruptive center of the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. Because it lacks topographic prominence and its activities historically coincided with those of Mauna Loa, Kīlauea was once thought to be a satellite of its much larger neighbor. Structurally, Kīlauea has a large, fairly recently formed caldera at its summit and two active rift zones, one extending 125 km east and the other 35 km west, as an active fault of unknown depth moving vertically an average of 2 to 20 mm per year.</p><br>
<p>Kīlaueas eruptive history has been a long and active one; its name means "spewing" or "much spreading" in the Hawaiian language, referring to its frequent outpouring of lava. The earliest lavas from the volcano date back to its submarine preshield stage, samples having been recovered by remotely operated underwater vehicles from its submerged slopes; samples of other flows have been recovered as core samples. Lavas younger than 1,000 years cover 90 percent of the volcanos surface. The oldest exposed lavas date back 2,800 years. The first well-documented eruption of Kīlauea occurred in 1823 (Western contact and written history began in 1778), and since that time the volcano has erupted repeatedly. Most historical eruptions have occurred at the volcanos summit or its eastern rift zone, and are prolonged and effusive in character. The geological record shows, however, that violent explosive activity predating European contact was extremely common, and in 1790 one such eruption killed over 80 warriors; should explosive activity start anew the volcano would become much more of a danger to humans. Kīlaueas current eruption dates back to January 3, 1983, and is by far its longest-duration historical period of activity, as well as one of the longest-duration eruptions in the world; as of January 2011, the eruption has produced 3.5 km3 of lava and resurfaced 123.2 km&sup2; of land.</p><br>
<p>Kīlaueas high state of activity has a major impact on its mountainside ecology, where plant growth is often interrupted by fresh tephra and drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide, producing acid rains particularly in a barren area south of its southwestern rift zone known as the Kaʻū Desert. Nonetheless, wildlife flourishes where left undisturbed elsewhere on the volcano and is highly endemic thanks to Kīlaueas (and the island of Hawaiis) isolation from the nearest landmass. Historically, the five volcanoes on the island were considered sacred by the Hawaiian people, and in Hawaiian mythology Kīlaueas Halemaumau Crater served as the body and home of Pele, goddess of fire, lightning, wind, and volcanoes. William Ellis, a missionary from England, gave the first modern account of Kīlauea and spent two weeks traveling along the volcano; since its foundation by Thomas Jaggar in 1912, the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, located on the rim of Kīlauea caldera, has served as the principal investigative and scientific body on the volcano and the island in general. In 1916, a bill forming the Hawaii Volcanoes National Park was signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson; since then, the park has become a World Heritage Site and a major tourist destination, attracting roughly 2.6 million people annually.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<h3>Setting</h3><br>
<p>desc bottom-left</p><br>
<p>Like all Hawaiian volcanoes, Kīlauea was created as the Pacific tectonic plate moved over the Hawaiian hotspot in the Earths underlying mantle. The Hawaii island volcanoes are the most recent evidence of this process that, over 70 million years, has created the 6,000 km-long Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain. The prevailing, though not completely settled, view is that the hotspot has been largely stationary within the planets mantle for much, if not all of the Cenozoic Era. However, while the Hawaiian mantle plume is well understood and extensively studied, the nature of hotspots themselves remains fairly enigmatic.</p><br>
<p>Kīlauea is one of five subaerial volcanoes that make up the island of Hawaii, created by the Hawaii hotspot. and Kīlauea, the youngest, is believed to be between 300,000 and 600,000 years of age</p><br>
<p>Following the pattern of Hawaiian volcano formation, Kīlauea started as a submarine volcano, gradually building itself up through underwater eruptions of alkali basalt lava before emerging from the sea with a series of explosive eruptions about 50,000 to 100,000 years ago. Since then, the volcano&#39;s activity has likely been as it is now, a continual stream of effusive and explosive eruptions of roughly the same pattern as its activity in the last 200 or 300 years.</p><br>
<p>At most 600,000 years old, Kīlauea is still quite young for a Hawaiian volcano; the oldest volcano on the island, the northwestern Kohala, experienced almost 900,000 years of activity before going extinct. The volcanos foreseeable future activity will likely be much like it has been for the past 50,000 to 100,000 years; Hawaiian and explosive activity will continue to heighten Kīlaueas summit, build up its rift zones, and fill and refill its summit caldera.</p><br>
<h3>Structure</h3><br>
<p>Kīlauea has been active throughout its history. Much of the volcano is covered in historical flows, and 90 percent of its surface dates from the last 1,100 years. Kīlauea built itself up from the seafloor over time, and thus much of its bulk remains underwater; its subaerial surface is in the form of a gently sloping, elongate, decentralized shield with a surface area of approximately 1,500 km&sup2, making up 13.7 percent of the island&#39;s total surface area.</p><br>
<p>Kīlauea lacks a topographical prominence, appearing only as a bulge on the southeastern flank of the nearby Mauna Loa; because of this, both native Hawaiians and early geologists considered it an active satellite of its more massive neighbor. However, analysis of the chemical composition of lavas from the two volcanoes shows that they have separate magma chambers, and are thus distinct. Nonetheless, their proximity has led to a historical trend in which high activity at one volcano roughly coincides with low activity at the other. When Kīlauea lay dormant between 1934 and 1952, Mauna Loa became active, and when the latter remained quiet from 1952 to 1974, the reverse was true. This is not always the case; the 1984 eruption of Mauna Loa started during an eruption at Kīlauea, but had no discernible effect on the Kīlauea eruption, and the ongoing inflation of Mauna Loas summit, indicative of a future eruption, began the same day as new lava flows at Kīlaueas Puu Ōō crater. In 2002, Kilauea experienced a high-volume effusive episode at the same time that Mauna Loa began inflating. This unexpected communication is evidence of crustal-level interactions between Mauna Loa and Kīlauea, even though these two volcanoes are thought to be fairly independent of each other. Geologists have suggested that "pulses" of magma entering Mauna Loa&#39;s deeper magma system may have increased pressure inside Kīlauea and triggered the concurrent eruptions.</p><br>
<p>Kīlauea has a large summit caldera, measuring 4 by with walls up to 120 m high, breached by lava flows on the southwestern side. and that its present form was finalized by a particularly powerful eruption in 1790.</p><br>
<p>Kīlauea has two rift zones radiating from its summit, one leading 125 km out to the east, the other 35 km long and trending towards the southwest. Its upper segment is the most presently active section of the volcano, its lower extremity reaches down Kīlaueas submerged flank to a depth of more than 5,000 m. The southwestern rift zones extremity is also underwater, although its submarine length is more limited. The southwestern rift zone also lacks a well-defined ridge line or a large number of pit craters, evidence that it is also geologically less active than the eastern rift zone.</p><br>
<p>A prominent structure on Kīlaueas southern flank is the Hilina fault system, a highly active fault moving vertically an average of 2 to 20 mm per year along the system. Its physiographic province is 500 m deep, but it is unknown if it is a shallow listric fault or if it penetrates to the very base of the volcano. A number of cinder cones, satellite shields, lava tubes, and other eruptive structures also dot the volcano, evidence of its recent activity. Kīlauea has some interactions with Mauna Loa, its larger neighbor and only other recently active volcano on the island; interspersed lava flows and ash deposits belonging to its neighbor have been found on its flanks, and some of Mauna Loas flows are, in turn, blanketed in Kīlauea tephra. In particular, the saddle between the two volcanoes is currently depressed, and is likely to fill over in the future.</p><br>
<p>All historical eruptions at Kīlauea have occurred at one of three places: its summit caldera, its eastern rift zone, or its southwestern rift zone. Half of Kīlaueas historical eruptions have occurred at or near Kīlaueas summit caldera. Activity there was nearly continuous for much of the 19th century, capped by a massive explosive eruption in 1924 before petering out by 1934. Recent activity has mostly shifted to Kīlaueas eastern rift zone, the site of 24 historical eruptions, located mostly on its upper section; by contrast, the volcanos southwestern rift zone has been relatively quiet, and has only been the site of five events to date.</p><br>
<h2>Eruptive history</h2><br>
<h3>Prehistoric eruptions</h3><br>
<p>Geologists have dated and documented dozens of major eruptions over the volcanos long history, bridging the long gap between Kīlaueas oldest known rock and only extremely recent written records and historical observation. and their surface exposure is unusual, as in most other volcanoes such lavas would have since been buried by more recent flows.</p><br>
<p>The second method of recovering older rock is through the drilling of deep core samples; however, the cores have proved difficult to date, and several samples from depths of around 1,700 m that suggested dates as old as 450,000 years have since been found erroneous. More reliable paleomagnetic dating, limited to rocks dating from after Kīlauea&#39;s emergence from the sea, has suggested ages of around 50,000 years. Exposed flows above sea level have proved far younger. Some of the oldest reliably dated rock, 43,000 years old, comes from charcoal sandwiched beneath an ash layer on a fault scarp known as Hilina Pali; however, sampled dated from higher up the scarp indicate ash deposition at an average rate of 6 m per thousand years, indicating the oldest exposed flows, from the base of the feature, could date back as far as 70,000 years.</p><br>
<p>The oldest well-studied eruptive product from Kīlauea is the Uwēkahuna Ash Member, the product of explosive eruptions between 2,800 and 2,100 years ago. Although it has since been largely buried by younger flows, it remains exposed in some places, and has been traced more than 20 km from the volcanos caldera, evidence of very powerful eruptions. Evidence suggests the existence of an active eruptive center at this time, termed the Powers Caldera, 2 km away from the modern one. At least 1,200 years ago, lava from the Powers Caldera overtopped its rim and solidified the structure; this was followed by a period of very voluminous tube-fed pāhoehoe flows from the summit. Following cessation of activity around 400 years ago, eruptions re-centered on the eastern part of Kīlaueas summit, and concurrently activity increased at the northern end of the eastern rift zone.</p><br>
<h3>1790 to 1934</h3><br>
<p>The earliest reliable written records of historical activity date back to about 1820, was responsible for the death of a party of warriors, part of the army of Keōua Kuahuula, the last island chief to resist Kamehameha I&#39;s rule; their death is evidenced by a set of footprints preserved within the Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park which are listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Kīlauea has been the site of 61 separate eruptions since 1823, easily making it one of the most active volcanoes on Earth.</p><br>
<p>During its observed history, the volume of lava erupted by Kīlauea has varied widely. In 1823 Kīlaueas summit caldera was far deeper than it is today, but was in the process of filling up under nearly continuous summit eruption, with 3 km3 of lava erupted there alone by 1840. The period between 1840 and 1920 saw approximately half that in eruptive volume, and in the thirty years between then and about 1950, the volcano was unusually quiet and exhibited very little activity; Kīlaueas eruptive volume has increased steadily since then, with present activity comparable to that of the early 1800s.</p><br>
<p>The length and origin these eruptions has also varied. Events last anywhere between days and years, and occur at a number of different sites. Half of all eruptions occur at or near Kīlaueas summit caldera. Activity there was nearly continuous for much of the 19th century, and after a reprieve between 1894 and 1907, continued onwards until 1924. There have been five historical eruptions at the volcanos relatively southwestern rift zone, and 24 along its more active eastern rift zone, mostly along its upper section.</p><br>
<p>The volcanos observed history has mostly been one of effusive eruptions; however, this is a relatively recent occurrence. Prior to the arrival of the first Europeans on the island, Kīlauea was the site of regular explosive activity, evidenced then by tribal chants referencing the volcanos fickle nature, and today by geological records of an explosively active mode of past activity. Although explosive activity still occurs at the volcano, it is not as intense as it once was, and the volcano would become much more dangerous to the general public if it returned to its old phase of activity once more.</p><br>
<p>Kīlauea erupted in 1823 and 1832, but the first major eruption since the 1790 event occurred in 1840, when its eastern rift zone became the site a large, effusive Hawaiian eruption over 35 km of its length, unusually long even for a rift eruption. The eruption lasted for 26 days and produced an estimated 205 to 265 million cubic meters of lava; the light created by the event was so intense that one could reportedly read a newspaper in Hilo at night, 30 km away.</p><br>
<p>The volcano was active again in 1868, 1877, 1884, 1885, 1894, and 1918,</p><br>
<p>Activity in 1921–1923 followed. Volcanic activity was soon confined to the summit, and ceased completely after 1934.</p><br>
<h3>1952 to 1982</h3><br>
<p>After the Halemaumau event, Kīlauea remained relatively quiet, and, for a time, completely silent, with all activity confined to the summit. Eruptions occurred soon after in 1954, 1955, and 1959, capped by a large event in 1960, when fissure-based phreatic eruption and earthquake activity gave way to a massive a&#39;a flow that overran multiple evacuated communities and resorts; the resulting summit deflation eventually caused the ever-active Halemaumau to collapse even further.</p><br>
<p>Following the event, eruptive events yearly and nearly continuous, a state of activity that remains today. 1967–1968 saw a particularly large, 80-million-cubic-meter, 251-day event from Halemaumau Crater.</p><br>
<p>The Mauna Ulu eruption of Kīlauea began on May 24, 1969, and ended on July 22, 1974. At the time, Mauna Ulu was the longest flank eruption of any Hawaiian volcano in recorded history. The eruption created a new vent, covered a large area of land with lava, and added new land to the island. The eruption started as a fissure between two pit craters, Āloi and Alae, where the Mauna Ulu shield would eventually form. Both pāhoehoe and aā lava erupted from the volcano. Early on, fountains of lava burst out as much as 540 meters (1772 ft) high. In early 1973, an earthquake occurred that caused Kīlauea to briefly stop erupting near the original Mauna Ulu site and instead erupt near the craters Pauahi and Hiiaka.</p><br>
<h3>1983 – present</h3><br>
<p>The most recent major eruption at Kīlauea has also proved to be by far its eruption of longest-known duration. The current Kīlauea eruption began on January 3, 1983, along the eastern rift zone. The vent produced vigorous lava fountains that quickly built up into Puʻu ʻŌʻō cone, sending lava flows down the volcano&#39;s slope. In 1986, activity shifted down the rift to a new vent, named Kūpaianahā, where it took on a more effusive character. Kūpaianahā built up a low, broad volcanic shield, and lava tubes fed flows extending 11 to 12 km (about 7 mi) to the sea. Between 1986 and 1991, Chain of Craters Road was cut, and the community of Kapa’ahu, the village of Kalapana, and the subdivisions of Kālapana Gardens and Royal Gardens were lost to the lava. A black sand beach at Kaimu was also engulfed. In 1992, the eruption moved back to Puʻu ʻŌʻō, but continued in the same manner, covering nearly all of the 1983–86 lava flows and large areas of coastline. As of December 2012, the eruption had produced 4 km3 of lava, covered 125 km&sup2; of land, added 202 hectare of land to the island, destroyed 214 structures, and buried 14.3 km of highway under lava as thick as 35 m.</p><br>
<p>In December 2014, the June 27 flow from the ongoing eruption threatened to enter the town of Pahoa, and to cut Highway 130, the only route into and out of Lower Puna. As a result, work was begun to reopen Chain of Craters Road, initially as a one-lane gravelled surface, and to make Railroad Avenue and Government Beach Road usable as emergency routes. However the flow stopped just short of entering Pahoa, and by March 2015, the threat to the town was much reduced.</p><br>
<h3>Volcanic Explosivity Index</h3><br>
<p>The Global Volcanism Program has assigned a Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) to all except five of Kīlauea&#39;s ninety-five known eruptions of the last 11,700 years. The eruption of 1790 has a VEI of 4. The eruptions of 1820, 1924, 1959 and 1960 have a VEI of 2. The eruptions of 680, 1050, 1490, 1500, 1610, 1868, four eruptions in 1961 and the current eruption since 1983 have a VEI of 1. The other seventy-four eruptions have a VEI of 0.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<h3>Background</h3><br>
<p>Because of its position more than 2,000 miles from the nearest continental landmass, the island of Hawaii is one of the most geographically isolated landmasses on Earth; this in turn has strongly influenced its ecology. The majority of the species present on the island are endemic to it and can be found nowhere else on Earth, the result of an isolated evolutionary lineage sheltered from external biotic influence; this makes its ecosystem vulnerable both to invasive species and human development, and an estimated third of the island&#39;s natural flora and fauna has already gone extinct.</p><br>
<p>Kīlaueas ecological community is additionally threatened by the activity of the volcano itself; lava flows often overrun sections of the volcanos forests and burns them down, and volcanic ash distributed by explosive eruptions often smothers local plant life. Layers of carbonized organic material at the bottom of Kīlauea ash deposits are evidence of the many times the volcano has wrought destruction on its own ecosystem and that of its neighbor Mauna Loa, and parts of the volcano present a dichotomy between pristine montane forest and recently buried volcanic "deserts" yet to be recolonized.</p><br>
<p>Kīlaueas bulk affects local climate conditions through the influence of trade winds coming predominately from the northeast, which, when squeezed upwards by the volcanos height, results in a moister windward side and a comparatively arid leeward flank. The volcano&#39;s ecology is further complicated by height, though not nearly as much as with its other, far taller neighbors, and by the local distribution of volcanic products, which make for varied soil conditions. The northern part of Kīlauea is mostly below 1,000 m and receives more than 75 in mean annual rainfall, and can mostly be classified as a lowland wet community; further south, the volcano has squeezed out much of the precipitation and receives less than 50 in mean annual rainfall, and is considered mostly a lowland dry environment.</p><br>
<h3>Ecosystems</h3><br>
<p>Much of Kīlaueas southern ecosystem lies within the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park, where a’e ferns, ʻōhiʻa trees (Metrosideros polymorpha), and hapu’u of the genus Cibotium are common. The park hosts a large variety of bird species, including the apapane (Himatione sanguinea), the amakihi (Hemignathus virens), the iiwi (Vestiaria coccinea), the ‘ōma’o (Myadestes obscurus), the ʻelepaio (Chasiempis sp.), and the endangered akepa (Loxops coccineus), akiapolaau (Hemignathus munroi), nēnē (Branta sandvicensis), ʻuaʻu (Pterodroma sandwichensis), and ʻio (Buteo solitarius) species. The Kīlauea coast also hosts three of the nine known critically endangered hawksbill sea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) nesting sites on the island.</p><br>
<p>Some of the area alongside Kīlauea&#39;s southwestern rift zone takes the form of the unusual Kaʻū Desert. Although not a "true" desert (rainfall there exceeds the maximum 1,000 mm a year), precipitation mixing with drifting volcanic sulfur dioxide forms acid rain with a pH as low as 3.4, greatly hampering regional plant growth. The deposited tephra particulates make the local soil very permeable. Plant life in the region is practically nonexistent.</p><br>
<p>Kīlaueas northern lowland wet forest ecosystem is partially protected by the Puna Forest Reserve and the Kahauale`a Natural Area Reserve. At 27,785 acre, Wao Kele in particular is Hawaiis largest lowland wet forest reserve, and is home to rare plant species including hāpuu ferns (Cibotium spp.), ieie vines (Freycinetia arborea), and kōpiko (Psychotria mariniana), some of which play a role in limiting invasive species spread. Opeapea (Lasiurus cinereus semotus) io (Buteo solitarius), common amakihi (Hemignathus virens), and nananana makakii (Theridion grallator) live in the trees. There are thought to be many more as-yet-undocumented species within the forest. Wao Keles primary forest tree is ōhia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha).</p><br>
<h2>Human history</h2><br>
<h3>Ancient Hawaiian</h3><br>
<p>The first Ancient Hawaiians to arrive on Hawaii island lived along the shores, where food and water were plentiful. Flightless birds that had previously known no predators became a staple food source. Early settlements had a major impact on the local ecosystem, and caused many extinctions, particularly amongst bird species, as well as introducing foreign plants and animals and increasing erosion rates. The prevailing lowland forest ecosystem was transformed from forest to grassland; some of this change was caused by the use of fire, but the main reason appears to have been the introduction of the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans).</p><br>
<p>The summits of the five volcanoes of Hawaii are revered as sacred mountains. Hawaiians associated elements of their natural environment with particular deities. In Hawaiian mythology, the sky father Wākea marries the earth mother Papa, giving birth to the Hawaiian Islands. Kīlauea itself means "spewing" or "much spreading" in Hawaiian, referencing its high state of activity, and in Hawaiian mythology Kīlauea is the body of the deity Pele, goddess of fire, lightning, wind, and volcanoes. It is here that the conflict between Pele and the rain god Kamapuaa was centered; Halemaumau, "House of the amaumau fern", derives its name from the struggle between the two gods. Kamapuaa, hard-pressed by Pele&#39;s ability to make lava spout from the ground at will, covered the feature, a favorite residence of the goddess, with fern fronds. Choked by trapped smoke, Pele emerged. Realizing that each could threaten the other with destruction, the others gods called a draw and divided the island between them, with Kamapuaa getting the moist windward northeastern side, and Pele directing the drier Kona (or leeward) side. The rusty singed appearance of the young fronds of the amaumau is said to be a product of the legendary struggle.</p><br>
<p>This early era was followed by peace and cultural expansion between the 12th and late 18th century. Land was divided into regions designed for both the immediate needs of the populace and the long-term welfare of the environment. These ahupuaa generally took the form of long strips of land oriented from the mountain summits to the coast.</p><br>
<h3>Modern era</h3><br>
<p>expedition.</p><br>
<p>The first foreigner to arrive at Hawaii was James Cook in 1778. The first non-native to observe Kīlauea in detail was William Ellis, an English missionary who in 1823 spent more than two weeks trekking across the volcano. He collated the first written account of the volcano and observed many of its features, establishing the premise for future explorations of the volcano.</p><br>
<p>Another missionary, C. S. Stewart, USAN., writes of it in his journal A Residence in the Sandwich Islands, which Letitia Elizabeth Landon quotes from in the notes to her poem The Volcano of Ki-Rau-E-A in Fisher&#39;s Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1832.</p><br>
<p>One of the earliest and most important surveyors of Kīlauea was James Dwight Dana, who, staying with the missionary Titus Coan, studied the islands volcanoes in detail for decades first-hand. Dana visited Kīlaueas summit and described it in detail in 1840. After publishing a summary paper in 1852, he directed a detailed geological study of the island in 1880 and 1881 but did not consider Kīlauea a separate volcano, instead referring to it as a flank vent of Mauna Loa; it was not until another geologist, C. E. Dutton, had elaborated on Dana&#39;s research during an 1884 expedition that Kīlauea came to be generally accepted as a separate entity.</p><br>
<p>The next era of Kīlaueas history began with the establishment of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory on the volcanos rim in 1912. The first permanent such installation in the United States, the observatory was the brainchild of Thomas Jaggar, head of geology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology; after witnessing the devastation of the 1908 Messina earthquake near Mount Etna in Italy, he declared that something must be done to support systematic volcanic and seismic study, and chose Kīlauea as the site of the first such establishment. After securing initial funding from MIT and the University of Hawaii, Jaggar took directorship of the observatory and, whilst its head between 1912 and 1940, pioneered seismological and observational study and observation of active volcanoes. After initial funding ran out, the Observatory was successively funded by the National Weather Service, the United States Geological Survey (USGS), and the National Park Service, before settling on the USGS, under whose banner the observatory has been operating since 1947. The main building has been moved twice since establishment, and today is positioned on the northwest rim of Kīlauea&#39;s caldera.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The volcano became a tourist attraction from the 1840s onwards, and local businessmen such as Benjamin Pitman and George Lycurgus ran a series of hotels at the rim, including Volcano House which is still the only hotel or restaurant located within the borders of the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park. In 1891, Lorrin A. Thurston, grandson of the American missionary Asa Thurston and investor in hotels along the volcanos rim, began campaigning for a park on the volcanos slopes, an idea first proposed by William Richards Castle, Jr. in 1903. Thurston, who owned the Honolulu Advertiser newspaper, printed editorials in favor of the idea; by 1911 Governor Walter F. Frear had proposed a draft bill to create "Kilauea National Park". Following endorsements from John Muir, Henry Cabot Lodge, and former President Theodore Roosevelt (in opposition to local ranchers) and several legislative attempts introduced by delegate Jonah Kūhiō Kalaniana&#39;ole, House Resolution 9525 was signed into law by Woodrow Wilson on August 1, 1916. It was the 11th National Park in the United States, and the first in a Territory; a few weeks later, the National Park Service Organic Act was signed into law, creating the National Park Service and tasking it with running the expanding system. Originally called "Hawaii National Park", it was split from the Haleakala National Park on 22 September 1960. Today the park, renamed the Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park, is a major conservatory agency and tourist attraction, and, since 1987, a World Heritage Site.</p><br>
<p>In its early days tourism was a relatively new concept, but grew slowly before exploding with the advent of air travel around 1959, the year Hawaii became a state. Today tourism is driven by the islands exotic tropical locations, and Kīlauea, being one of the few volcanoes in the world in a more or less constant state of moderate eruption, is a major part of the islands tourist draw. Today, Kīlauea is visited by roughly 2.6 million people annually, most of whom proceed up the volcano from the recently revamped Kilauea Visitor Center near the park entrance. The Thomas A. Jaggar Museum is also a popular tourist stop; located at the edge of Kīlauea caldera, the museum&#39;s observation deck offers the best sheltered view on the volcano of the activity at Halemaumau Crater. The Volcano House still provides the nearest lodging, and the nearby Volcano Village the most numerous; visitors associated with the military can find lodging at the Kilauea Military Camp. A number of hiking trails, points of interest, and guided ranger programs exist, and the Chain of Craters Road, Hilina Pali Road, and Crater Rim Drive provide access. In 2008, Lava Viewing Area was opened for tourists in Kalapana on the southeastern side of the National Park, accessible only from State Route 130.</p><br>
<p>Puy de Dôme  is a large lava dome and one of the youngest volcanoes in the Chaîne des Puys region of Massif Central in central France. This chain of volcanoes including numerous cinder cones, lava domes, and maars is far from the edge of any tectonic plate. Puy de Dôme is approximately 10 km from Clermont-Ferrand. The Puy-de-Dôme département  is named after the volcano.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>In pre-Christian Europe, Puy de Dôme served as an assembly place for spiritual ceremonies. Temples were built at the summit, including a Gallo-Roman temple dedicated to the God Mercury, the ruins of which were discovered in 1873.</p><br>
<p>In 1648, Florin Périer, at the urging of Blaise Pascal, proved Evangelista Torricelli&#39;s theory that barometric observations were caused by the weight of air by measuring the height of a column of mercury at three elevations on Puy de Dôme.</p><br>
<p>In 1875, a physics laboratory was built at the summit. Since 1956, a TDF (Télédiffusion de France) antenna is also located there. On the top of the mountain, there is a transmitter for FM and TV.</p><br>
<h2>Tourism</h2><br>
<p>The Puy de Dôme is one of the most visited sites in the Auvergne region, attracting nearly 500,000 visitors a year. The summit offers expansive views of the Chaîne des Puys and Clermont-Ferrand. It is a well-known centre for paragliding.</p><br>
<p>The summit can be reached by two pedestrian path: a southern one ("Le sentier des muletiers", formerly a Roman road) and a northern one ("Le sentier des chèvres") which runs past the Nid de la Poule crater. The GR 4 long-distance trail includes both paths to cross the mountain.</p><br>
<p>Since May 2012, visitors can also go up the mountain by train with the Panoramique des Dômes, a rack railway.</p><br>
<p>A road exists along the train tracks but it is closed to the general traffic, except for the military, service vehicles or emergencies.</p><br>
<p>At the top of the mountain, restaurants and shops are available as well as a visitor centre giving information on the history and geology of the area.</p><br>
<h2>Sport</h2><br>
<h3>Cycling</h3><br>
<p>In more recent times, Puy de Dôme has served as an occasional stage finish in the Tour de France. It was here that in 1964 Raymond Poulidor battled with Jacques Anquetil in one of the race&#39;s most famous moments, racing side by side up almost the entire climb; and that in 1975 Eddy Merckx was punched in the kidney by a spectator. According to Jean-François Pescheux, since the construction of a rack railway, and because of the very narrow road, the Tour will never come back to the Puy de Dôme, its last ascension in the race being in 1988.</p><br>
<p>The road is only open for cyclists during very limited periods (when other vehicles are prohibited). In 2006 this was 7–9am on Wednesdays and Sundays between 1 May and 30 September. In 2017, it will be the first checkpoint in the Transcontinental Race, which is a non-stop, unsupported bicycle race across Europe.</p><br>
<h3>Motorsports</h3><br>
<p>The Circuit de Charade was a motorsport street circuit built in 1957 using pre-existing roads around the base of the Puy de Dôme. The venue hosted the French Grand Prix as well as the French motorcycle Grand Prix several times in the 1960s and early 1970s. In 1986, the track was shortened due to safety issues and was converted into a dedicated motorsport race track hosting track days, driving schools as well as historic motorsport events.</p><br>
<p>Mount Kyllini or Mount Cyllene , is a mountain on the Peloponnese in Greece famous for its association with the god Hermes. It rises to 2,376 m above sea level, making it the second highest point on the peninsula. It is located near the border between the historic regions of Arcadia and Achaea—in the northeast of Arcadia, and entirely within modern Corinthia. It is located west of Corinth, northwest of Stymfalia, north of Tripoli, and south of Derveni.</p><br>
<p>Much of the mountain is barren and rocky, although the area below 2,000 m is largely forested. There is an observatory at 908 m, at 22.67 east longitude and 37.97 north latitude. From the top a large portion of northeastern Peloponnesus is visible, including the eastern part of Achaia and Chelmos, the Gulf of Corinth and most of Corinthia, the southern part of Corinthia and parts of northeastern Arcadia. The nearest mountain ranges are Oligyrtos to the south and Chelmos/Aroania to the west. Roads pass near the southern and western slopes, but there are not many on the mountain itself, as much of the mountain is part of a park. The municipal boundary of Stymfalia–Feneos–Evrostini and Xylokastro passes through the mountain.</p><br>
<h2>Mythology</h2><br>
<p>In Greek mythology, Hermes was born in a sacred cave on the mountain, and so Cyllenius is a frequent epithet of his. The Homeric Hymn Hymn to Pan recalled that "Hermes... came to Arkadia... there where his sacred place is as god of Kyllene. For there, though a god, he used to tend curly-fleeced sheep." In ancient times there was a temple and statue dedicated to him on the mountain&#39;s summit.</p><br>
<p>Gaius Julius Hyginus records that it was on Cyllene that the seer Tiresias changed sex when he struck two copulating snakes.</p><br>
<p>Cyllene (or Kyllene) herself was a mountain nymph (an oread) who had taken for her consort Pelasges in the most ancient times that Greek mythographers could recall. There was a port in Elis in Antiquity named "Cyllene" near the mouth of the Alfeios, where the traveler Pausanias noted the image of Hermes, "most devoutly worshiped by the inhabitants, is merely the male member upright on the pedestal." Several modern places are also named Kyllini.</p><br>
<p>The Pleiades were born on Mount Kyllini.</p><br>
<h2>Nearest places</h2><br>
<p>Feneos, west</p><br>
<p>Kastania (Mt Cnacalus), 1,000 m</p><br>
<p>Kessari, southeast</p><br>
<p>Goura, southwest</p><br>
<p>Westerplatte is a peninsula in Gdańsk, Poland, located on the Baltic Sea coast mouth of the Dead Vistula , in the Gdańsk harbour channel. From 1926 to 1939 it was the location of a Polish Military Transit Depot , sanctioned within the territory of the Free City of Danzig .</p><br>
<p>It is famous for the Battle of Westerplatte, which was the first clash between Polish and German forces during the Invasion of Poland and thus the first battle of the European theater of World War II.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<h3>Resort</h3><br>
<p>The resort was established on the Westerplatte peninsula around 1830 which had a beach, a forested park, an ocean-side bath complex and health spa facilities.</p><br>
<h3>The transit depot</h3><br>
<p>In 1925 the Council of the League of Nations allowed Poland to keep 88 soldiers on Westerplatte, which the Poles had secretly increased to 176 men and six officers by September 1939. They were armed with one 75 mm gun, two 37 mm Bofors antitank guns, four mortars and a number of medium machine guns. There were no heavy fortifications, but several reinforced buildings and guardhouses equipped with heavy weapons were hidden in the peninsula&#39;s forest.</p><br>
<p>The Polish garrison was separated from Free City of Danzig (Gdańsk) by the harbor channel, with only a narrow isthmus connecting the area to the mainland. In case of war, the defenders were supposed to withstand a sustained attack for 12 hours after which a relief from the main units of the Polish Army were to arrive.</p><br>
<p>The Polish garrison&#39;s commanding officer was Major Henryk Sucharski, the executive officer was Captain Franciszek Dąbrowski.</p><br>
<h3>Battle of Westerplatte</h3><br>
<p>On 1 September 1939, only minutes after the German Luftwaffe (Airforce) had begun the invasion of Poland by dropping bombs in a series of raids on the city of Wieluń by Junkers Ju 87 Stukas, at 04:48 local time, the battleship Schleswig-Holstein, then on a "courtesy visit" to the Free City of Danzig, without warning opened fire on the Polish garrison. This was followed by an attack by Oblt. Wilhelm Henningsen’s storm unit from the Schleswig-Holstein and the "Marinestosstruppkompanie." However, soon after crossing the artillery-breached brick wall, the attackers were ambushed by the Polish defenders, with small arms, mortar and machine gun fire from concealed and well-positioned firing points that caught them in a crossfire. Another two assaults that day were repelled as well, with the Germans suffering unexpectedly high losses.</p><br>
<p>Over the coming days, the Germans repeatedly bombarded Westerplatte with naval artillery and heavy field artillery along with dive-bombing raids by Junkers Ju 87 Stukas. Repeated attacks by 570 German soldiers were repelled by the 180 Polish soldiers for seven days. Major Henryk Sucharski had been informed that no help from the Polish Army would come. Cut off, with no reinforcements or chance of resupply, he continued his defense, keeping the main German force stalled at Westerplatte and so preventing further attacks along the Polish coast.</p><br>
<p>On 7 September the Major decided to surrender, due to lack of ammunition and supplies. As a sign of honor for the soldiers of Westerplatte, German commander, Gen. Eberhardt, allowed Major Sucharski to keep his sword while being taken prisoner.</p><br>
<h3>Post-war</h3><br>
<p>The ruins of the defenders&#39; barracks and guardhouses are still there. After the war, one of the guardhouses (#1) was converted into a museum. Two 280mm shells from the Schleswig-Holstein prop up its entrance.</p><br>
<p>A Monument of the Coast Defenders (Pomnik Obrońców Wybrzeża) was unveiled in 1966.</p><br>
<p>The Abe River is a river in Shizuoka Prefecture of central Japan. It is 53.3 km long and has a watershed of 567 km&sup2;.</p><br>
<p>The river rises from Akaishi Mountains which stretch over the border between Yamanashi and Shizuoka Prefectures, and flows into Suruga Bay in the Pacific Ocean). It is known for its clear stream and forms part of the main water supply for Shizuoka city.</p><br>
<p>There are many hot springs at the river head, which is also known for its numerous landslides and for the Abe Great Falls, one of Japan&#39;s Top 100 Waterfalls. Unlike the nearby Tenryū River and Ōi River are no dams on the Abe River.</p><br>
<p>Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu carried out extensive construction and formed the present route of the lower course of the river. Abekawamochi, a mochi rice cake dusted with kinako (soybean flour) has been a local speciality of this area since at least the Edo period.</p><br>
<p>Fallingwater or the Kaufmann Residence is a house designed by architect Frank Lloyd Wright in 1935 in rural southwestern Pennsylvania, 43 mi southeast of Pittsburgh. The home was built partly over a waterfall on Bear Run in the Mill Run section of Stewart Township, Fayette County, Pennsylvania, in the Laurel Highlands of the Allegheny Mountains. The house was designed as a weekend home for the family of Liliane Kaufmann and her husband, Edgar J. Kaufmann, owner of Kaufmann&#39;s department store.</p><br>
<p>The house was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1966. After its completion, Time called it Wrights "most beautiful job", and it is listed among Smithsonians "Life List of 28 places to visit before you die". In 1991, members of the American Institute of Architects named Fallingwater the "best all-time work of American architecture" and in 2007, it was ranked 29th on the list of Americas Favorite Architecture according to the AIA.</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>At age 67, Frank Lloyd Wright was given the opportunity to design and construct three buildings. With his three works of the late 1930s—Fallingwater; the Johnson Wax Building in Racine, Wisconsin; and the Herbert Jacobs house in Madison, Wisconsin—Wright regained his prominence in the architectural community.</p><br>
<p>Edgar Kaufmann Sr. was a Pittsburgh businessman and president of Kaufmann&#39;s Department Store. His son, Edgar Kaufmann Jr., briefly studied architecture under Wright.</p><br>
<p>Edgar Sr. had been prevailed upon by his son and Wright to subsidize the cost of a 12-foot-square model of Wrights Broadacre City. The model was initially displayed at an Industrial Arts Exposition in the Forum at the Rockefeller Center starting on April 15, 1935. After the New York exposition, Kaufmann Sr. arranged to have the model displayed in Pittsburgh at an exposition titled "New Homes for Old", sponsored by the Federal Housing Administration. The exposition opened on June 18 on the 11th floor of Kaufmanns store.</p><br>
<p>The Kaufmanns lived in “La Tourelle”, a French Norman estate in Fox Chapel designed in 1923 for Edgar J. Kaufmann by Pittsburgh architect Benno Janssen.</p><br>
<p>The Kaufmanns owned property outside Pittsburgh with a waterfall and cabins, which they used as a rural retreat. When these cabins deteriorated, Mr. Kaufmann contacted Wright.</p><br>
<p>On December 18, 1934, Wright visited Bear Run and asked for a survey of the area around the waterfall. One was prepared by Fayette Engineering Company of Uniontown, Pennsylvania, including all the site&#39;s boulders, trees, and topography, and forwarded to Wright in March 1935.</p><br>
<p>As reported by Wrights apprentices at Taliesin, Kaufmann Sr. was in Milwaukee on September 22, nine months after their initial meeting, and called Wright at home early Sunday morning to surprise him with the news that he would be visiting Wright that day, before lunch. He could not wait to see Wrights plans. Wright had told Kaufmann in earlier communication that he had been working on the plans, but had not actually drawn anything. After breakfast that morning, amid a group of very nervous apprentices, Wright calmly drew the plans in the two hours in which it took Kaufmann to drive to Taliesin.</p><br>
<p>Wright intended to build the home above the falls, rather than below them to afford a view of the cascades as Kaufmann had expected. It has been said that Kaufmann was initially very upset that Wright had designed the house to sit atop the falls. Kaufmann had wanted the house located on the southern bank of Bear Run, directly facing the falls. He had told Wright that they were his favorite aspect of the property.</p><br>
<h3>Design and construction</h3><br>
<p>One problem of building was that the north bank of Bear Run was not large enough to provide a foundation for a typically built Wright house.</p><br>
<p>The Kaufmanns planned to entertain large groups of people, so the house would need to be larger than the plot allowed. Also, Mr. and Mrs. Kaufmann requested separate bedrooms, as well as a bedroom for their adult son, and an additional guest room, for a total of four bedrooms.</p><br>
<p>A cantilevered structure was used to address this. The structural design for Fallingwater was undertaken by Wright in association with staff engineers Mendel Glickman and William Wesley Peters, who had been responsible for the columns featured in Wright’s revolutionary design for the Johnson Wax Headquarters.</p><br>
<p>Preliminary plans were issued to Kaufmann for approval on October 15, 1935, after which Wright made a further visit to the site and provided a cost estimate for the job. In December 1935, an old rock quarry was reopened to the west of the site to provide the stones needed for the house’s walls. Wright visited only periodically during construction, assigning his apprentice Robert Mosher as his permanent on-site representative. The final working drawings were issued by Wright in March 1936, with work beginning on the bridge and main house in April.</p><br>
<p>The construction was plagued by conflicts between Wright, Kaufmann, and the construction contractor. Uncomfortable with what he saw as Wrights insufficient experience using reinforced concrete, Kaufmann had the architects daring cantilever design reviewed by a firm of consulting engineers. Upon receiving their report, Wright took offense, immediately requesting that Kaufmann return his drawings and indicating that he was withdrawing from the project. Kaufmann relented to Wright&#39;s gambit, and the engineer’s report was subsequently buried within a stone wall of the house.</p><br>
<p>After a visit to the site in June 1936, Wright rejected the stonemasonry of the bridge, which had to be rebuilt.</p><br>
<p>For the cantilevered floors, Wright and his team used upside-down T-shaped beams integrated into a monolithic concrete slab which formed both the ceiling of the space below and provided resistance against compression. The contractor, Walter Hall, also an engineer, produced independent computations and argued for increasing the reinforcing steel in the first floor’s slab. Wright refused the suggestion. While some sources state that the contractor quietly doubled the amount of reinforcement, others say that Kaufmans consulting engineers – at Kaufmans request – redrew Wright&#39;s reinforcing drawings and doubled the amount of steel specified by Wright.</p><br>
<p>In addition, the contractor did not build in a slight upward incline in the formwork for the cantilever to compensate for the settling and deflection of the cantilever. Once the concrete formwork was removed, the cantilever developed a noticeable sag. Upon learning of the unapproved steel addition, Wright recalled Mosher.</p><br>
<p>With Kaufmann’s approval, the consulting engineers arranged for the contractor to install a supporting wall under the main supporting beam for the west terrace. When Wright discovered it on a site visit, he had Mosher discreetly remove the top course of stones. When Kaufmann later confessed to what had been done, Wright showed him what Mosher had done and pointed out that the cantilever had held up for the past month under test loads without the wall’s support.</p><br>
<p>In October 1937, the main house was completed.</p><br>
<h3>Cost</h3><br>
<p>The original estimated cost for building Fallingwater was 35,000. The final cost for the home and guest house was $155,000, broken down as: house $75,000, finishing and furnishing $22,000, guest house, garage and servants quarters $50,000, and architects fee $8,000. From 1938 through 1941, more than $22,000 was spent on additional details and for changes in the hardware and lighting.</p><br>
<p>The total cost of $155,000, adjusted for inflation, is equivalent to about $ million in -1. The cost of the house&#39;s restoration in 2001 was estimated to be $11.5 million (approximately $ million in -1).</p><br>
<h3>Use of the house</h3><br>
<p>Fallingwater was the family&#39;s weekend home from 1937 until 1963, when Kaufmann Jr. donated the property to the Western Pennsylvania Conservancy. In 1964, it was opened to the public as a museum. According to the informational pamphlet distributed on the grounds, the house attracts more than 120,000 visitors each year.</p><br>
<p>Years later, Kaufmann Jr. said, " understood that people were creatures of nature, hence an architecture which conformed to nature would conform to what was basic in people. For example, although all of Falling Water is opened by broad bands of windows, people inside are sheltered as in a deep cave, secure in the sense of the hill behind them."</p><br>
<h2>Design</h2><br>
<p>Fallingwater stands as one of Wrights greatest masterpieces both for its dynamism and for its integration with its striking natural surroundings. Fallingwater has been described as an architectural tour de force of Wrights organic philosophy. Wright&#39;s passion for Japanese architecture was strongly reflected in the design of Fallingwater, particularly in the importance of interpenetrating exterior and interior spaces and the strong emphasis placed on harmony between man and nature. Contemporary Japanese architect Tadao Ando has said of the house,I think Wright learned the most important aspect of architecture, the treatment of space, from Japanese architecture. When I visited Fallingwater in Pennsylvania, I found that same sensibility of space. But there was the additional sounds of nature that appealed to me.</p><br>
<p>The organically designed private residence was intended to be a nature retreat for its owners. The house is well-known for its connection to the site; it is built on top of an active waterfall which flows beneath the house.</p><br>
<p>The fireplace hearth in the living room integrates boulders found on the site and upon which the house was built — ledge rock which protrudes up to a foot through the living room floor was left in place to demonstrably link the outside with the inside. Wright had initially intended that the ledge be cut flush with the floor, but this had been one of the Kaufmann family&#39;s favorite sunning spots, so Mr. Kaufmann suggested that it be left as it was. The stone floors are waxed, while the hearth is left plain, giving the impression of dry rocks protruding from a stream.</p><br>
<p>Integration with the setting extends even to small details. For example, where glass meets stone walls no metal frame is used; rather, the glass and its horizontal dividers were run into a caulked recess in the stonework so that the stone walls appear uninterrupted by glazing. From the cantilevered living room, a stairway leads directly down to the stream below, and in a connecting space which connects the main house with the guest and servant level, a natural spring drips water inside, which is then channeled back out. Bedrooms are small, some with low ceilings to encourage people outward toward the open social areas, decks, and outdoors.</p><br>
<p>Bear Run and the sound of its water permeate the house, especially during the spring when the snow is melting, and locally quarried stone walls and cantilevered terraces resembling the nearby rock formations are meant to be in harmony. The design incorporates broad expanses of windows and balconies which reach out into their surroundings. The staircase leading down from the living room to the stream is accessed by movable horizontal glass panes. In conformance with Wright&#39;s views, the main entry door is away from the falls.</p><br>
<p>On the hillside above the main house stands a four-bay carport, servants&#39; quarters, and a guest house. These attached outbuildings were built two years later using the same quality of materials and attention to detail as the main house. The guest quarters feature a spring-fed swimming pool which overflows and drains to the river below.</p><br>
<p>Wright had planned in the beginning to have the house blend into its natural settings in rural Pennsylvania. In doing this, he limited his color choices to two colors, light ochre for the concrete and his signature Cherokee red for the steel.</p><br>
<p>After Fallingwater was deeded to the public, three carport bays were enclosed at the direction of Kaufmann Jr., to be used by museum visitors to view a presentation at the end of their guided tours on the Western Pennsylvania Conservancy (to which the home was entrusted). Kaufmann Jr. designed its interior himself, to specifications found in other Fallingwater interiors by Wright.</p><br>
<h2>Repair work</h2><br>
<p>The Western Pennsylvania Conservancy conducted an intensive program to preserve and restore Fallingwater. From 1988, a New York City-based architecture and engineering firm was responsible for the materials conservation of Fallingwater. During this time, the firm reviewed original construction documents and subsequent repair reports, evaluated conditions and problems, analyzed select materials, designed the re-roofing and re-waterproofing of roofs and terraces, specified the restoration for original steel casement windows and doors, reconstructed failed concrete reconstructions, restored the masonry, analyzed interior paint finishes, specified interior paint removal methods and repainting, designed repair methods for concrete and stucco, and developed a new coating system for the concrete.</p><br>
<p>Given the humid environment directly over running water, mold had proven to be a problem. The elder Kaufmann called Fallingwater "a seven-bucket building" for its leaks, and nicknamed it "Rising Mildew". Condensation under roofing membranes was also a problem, due to the lack of damp proofing or thermal breaks.</p><br>
<p>Fallingwater&#39;s structural system includes a series of very bold reinforced concrete cantilevered balconies which had problems from the beginning. Pronounced deflection of the concrete cantilevers was noticed as soon as formwork was removed at the construction stage. This deflection continued to increase over time, and eventually reached 7 in (over a 15-foot span).</p><br>
<p>In 1995, the Western Pennsylvania Conservancy commissioned a study of Fallingwater’s structural integrity. Structural engineers analyzed the movement of the cantilevers over time and conducted radar studies of the cantilevers to locate and quantify the reinforcement. These showed that the contractor had indeed added reinforcement over Wright&#39;s plan; nevertheless, the cantilevers were still insufficiently reinforced. An architecture firm was hired to fix the problem. Both the concrete and its steel reinforcement were close to their failure limits. As a result, in 1997, temporary girders were installed beneath the cantilevers to carry their weight.</p><br>
<p>In 2002, the structure was repaired permanently using post-tensioning. The living room flagstone floor blocks were individually tagged and removed. Blocks were joined to the concrete cantilever beams and floor joists, high-strength steel cables were fed through the blocks and exterior concrete walls and tightened using jacks. The floors and walls were then restored, leaving Fallingwater’s interior and exterior appearance unchanged. The cantilevers now had sufficient support, and the deflection stopped.</p><br>
<h2>Depictions in popular culture</h2><br>
<p>Fallingwater inspired the fictional Vandamm residence at Mount Rushmore in the 1959 Alfred Hitchcock film North by Northwest.</p><br>
<p>Composer Michael Daugherty&#39;s 2013 concerto for violin and string orchestra, "Fallingwater", was inspired by the house.</p><br>
<p>Angels Flight is a landmark narrow gauge funicular railway in the Bunker Hill district of Downtown Los Angeles, California. It has two funicular cars, Sinai and Olivet, running in opposite directions on a shared cable on the 298 ft long inclined railway.</p><br>
<p>The funicular has operated on two different sites, using the same cars and station elements. The original Angels Flight location, with tracks connecting Hill Street and Olive Street, operated from 1901 until it was closed in 1969, when its site was cleared for redevelopment.</p><br>
<p>The second Angels Flight location opened one half block south of the original location in 1996, with tracks connecting Hill Street and California Plaza. Before the 2013 service suspension, the cost of a one-way ride was 50 cents (25 cents for Metro pass holders). Angels Flight service had been suspended since that time. In March 2017 an announcement was made that the line would be reopened later in the year after safety enhancements are completed; Angel&#39;s Flight reopened for public service on August 31, 2017.</p><br>
<p>Although it was marketed primarily as a tourist novelty, it was frequently used by local workers to travel between the Downtown Historic Core and Bunker Hill. In 2015, the executive director of the nearby REDCAT arts centre described the railroad as an important "economic link", and there was pressure for the city to fund and re-open the railroad.</p><br>
<h2>The original Angels Flight</h2><br>
<p>Built in 1901 with financing from Colonel J.W. Eddy, as the Los Angeles Incline Railway, Angels Flight began at the west corner of Hill Street at Third and ran for two blocks uphill (northwestward) to its Olive Street terminus. Angels Flight consisted of two vermillion "boarding stations" and two cars, named Sinai and Olivet, pulled up the steep incline by metal cables powered by engines at the upper Olive Street station. As one car ascended, the other descended, carried down by gravity. An archway labeled "Angels Flight" greeted passengers on the Hill Street entrance, and this name became the official name of the railway in 1912 when the Funding Company of California purchased the railway from its founders.</p><br>
<p>The original Angels Flight was a conventional funicular, with both cars connected to the same haulage cable. Unlike more modern funiculars it did not have track brakes for use in the event of cable breakage, but it did have a separate safety cable which would come into play in case of breakage of the main cable. It operated for 68 years with a good safety record.</p><br>
<p>During operation in its original location, the railroad was owned and operated by six additional companies following Colonel Eddy. in 1912 Eddy sold the railroad to Funding Company of Los Angeles who in turn sold it to Continental Securities Company in 1914. Robert W. Moore, an engineer for Continental Securities, purchased Angels Flight in 1946. In 1952 Lester B. Moreland and Byron Linville a prominent banker at Security First National Bank purchased it from Moore and the following year Lester B. Moreland’s family purchased Byron Linville’s interest in the Railway, becoming sole stockholder. In 1962 the city forced Moreland to sell though condemnation and the citys redevelopment agency hired Oliver & Williams Elevator Company to run it until it was shut down on May 18, 1969. The following day the dismantling began and the cars were hauled away to be stored in a warehouse. The railroads arch, station house, drinking fountain, and other artifacts were taken to an outdoor storage yard in Gardena, California.</p><br>
<p>The only fatality that involved the original Angels Flight occurred in the autumn of 1943, when a sailor attempting to walk up the track itself was crushed beneath one of the cars.</p><br>
<p>In November 1952, the Beverly Hills Parlor of the Native Daughters of the Golden West erected a plaque to commemorate fifty years of service by the railway.</p><br>
<p>— Built in 1901 by Colonel J.W. Eddy, lawyer, engineer and friend of President Abraham Lincoln, Angels Flight is said to be the world&#39;s shortest incorporated railway. The counterbalanced cars, controlled by cables, travel a 33 percent grade for 315 feet. It is estimated that Angels Flight has carried more passengers per mile than any other railway in the world, over a hundred million in its first fifty years. This incline railway is a public utility operating under a franchise granted by the City of Los Angeles. —</p><br>
<p>In 1962, at its first meeting, the city&#39;s new Cultural Heritage Board designated Angels Flight a Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument (No. 4), along with four other locations. Los Angeles was early in enacting preservation laws, and the first sites chosen each were "considered threatened to some extent," according to the history of the board, now the Cultural Heritage Commission.</p><br>
<h2>Dismantling</h2><br>
<p>Sid Kastner standing on Sinai in front of "The Bandstand" where the two funicular cars would be stored (1969)</p><br>
<h2>Reconstruction</h2><br>
<p>After being stored for 27 years, the funicular was rebuilt and reopened by the newly formed Angels Flight Railway Foundation on February 24, 1996, half a block south of the original site. Although the original cars, Sinai and Olivet, were used, a new track and haulage system was designed and built, a redesign which had unfortunate consequences five years later. As rebuilt, the funicular was 91 m long on an approximately 33-percent grade.</p><br>
<p>Car movement was controlled by an operator inside the upper station house, who was responsible for visually determining that the track and vehicles were clear for movement, closing the platform gates, starting the cars moving, monitoring the operation of the funicular cars, observing car stops at both stations, and collecting fares from passengers. The cars themselves did not carry any staff members. Angels Flight was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 13, 2000.</p><br>
<h2>2001 accident</h2><br>
<p>On February 1, 2001, Angels Flight had a serious accident that killed a passenger, Leon Praport (age 83), and injured seven others, including Praport&#39;s wife, Lola. The accident occurred when car Sinai, approaching the upper station, reversed direction and accelerated downhill in an uncontrolled fashion to strike car Olivet near the lower terminus.</p><br>
<p>The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) conducted an investigation into the accident and determined that the probable cause was the improper design and construction of the Angels Flight funicular drive and the failure of the various regulatory bodies to ensure that the railway system conformed to initial safety design specifications and known funicular safety standards. The NTSB further remarked that the company that designed and built the drive, control, braking, and haul systems, Lift Engineering/Yantrak, is no longer in business and that the whereabouts of the company&#39;s principal is unknown.</p><br>
<p>Unlike the original, the new funicular used two separate haulage systems (one for each car), with the two systems connected to each other, the drive motor, and the service brake by a gear train; it was the failure of this gear train that was the immediate cause of the accident since it effectively disconnected Sinai both from Olivet’s balancing load and from the service brake. There were emergency brakes that acted on the rim of each haulage drum, but due to inadequate maintenance, the emergency brakes for both cars were inoperative, which left Sinai without any brakes once its physical connection to the service brake was lost. Contrary to what might be expected, the new funicular was constructed with neither safety cable nor track brakes, either of which would have prevented the accident; the NTSB was unable to identify another funicular worldwide that operated without either of these safety features.</p><br>
<p>During the 17 to 26 months that the emergency braking system was not operating, the braking system was tested daily, but since the service brake and emergency brake were tested simultaneously, there was no way to tell if the emergency brake was functioning without looking at the brake pads or hydraulic pressure gauges during the test. The test was always performed with the Sinai car traveling uphill, which meant that when the power was cut and the brakes applied (as part of the test), Sinai’s momentum caused the car to continue moving uphill a short distance (slackening the cable) and then to roll back from gravity, jerking the cable tight.</p><br>
<p>If the emergency brakes had been functional, they would have caught Sinai when the cable snapped tight, but without the emergency brakes, the force of the jerk caused by the daily test was directed through the spline (the part that failed) and to the service brake. In addition, it was found that the original design called for the spline to be made of AISI 1018 steel on one drawing and of AISI 8822 steel on a different drawing, but it is unlikely that this ambiguity in the design contributed to the accident. However, regular analysis of gear box oil-samples was discontinued in May 1998, despite the fact that the company performing the tests recommending that the rising particulate level in the oil samples warranted the test occurring more frequently. The continued rising particulate level may have been in part caused by unusual wear of the splines. Continued testing could have resulted in an inspection to locate the cause of the unusual wear.</p><br>
<p>Besides the design failures in the haulage system, the system was also criticised by the NTSB for the lack of gates on the cars and the absence of a parallel walkway for emergency evacuation. The funicular suffered serious damage in the accident.</p><br>
<h3>Evaluation</h3><br>
<p>The death and injuries could have been avoided if any one of the following had taken place:</p><br>
<p>The 1996 renovation had included installing track brakes or safety cables.</p><br>
<p>The biannual oil analysis tests had not been discontinued in May 1998 (which would have shown rising levels of particulate material in the oil and may have caused a full inspection of the system to take place).</p><br>
<p>A single haulage system, similar to the first Angels Flight, had been used rather than the system that had separate cables for each car.</p><br>
<p>The emergency brake hydraulic solenoid valve had been installed according to the design (as normally open). But if the brake fluid had been changed as instructed in the maintenance manual, this would not have happened.</p><br>
<p>The technician installing the solenoid had obtained a properly fitting part when discovering the solenoid did not properly fit the valve, instead of forcing it in with a tool (the installed valve was a newer design, for which the older solenoid was dimensionally incompatible, and tool marks on the solenoid show that it was forced in).</p><br>
<p>The daily brake test had included testing the service brake and emergency brake separately instead of testing them simultaneously (which made it impossible to confirm that they were both working).</p><br>
<p>The daily brake test procedure had included looking at the brake pads and the hydraulic pressure in the emergency brake system to confirm it was operating.</p><br>
<p>The pressure gauges for the hydraulic brake systems had been placed on the operator&#39;s control panel instead of in the equipment cabinet.</p><br>
<p>The daily brake test had involved applying the brakes more gradually so that the up-hill-bound car would not have the momentum to produce slack in the cable and roll backwards, jerking the cable tight.</p><br>
<p>The splines (the part that failed) had been designed to be extraordinarily strong to withstand the excessive force that occurred when the brake test was performed and the emergency brake was inoperative (which resulted in the force of the cable being pulled tight to be directed to the service brake through the splines, rather than to the emergency brake which was before the splines).</p><br>
<h2>Repaired</h2><br>
<p>The new drive and safety system completely replaced the system which was the cause of the fatal 2001 accident. Like the original Angels Flight design and most traditional funicular systems, the new drive system incorporates a single main haulage cable, with one car attached to each end. Also like the original design, a second safety cable is utilized. To further enhance safety, unlike the original design, each car now has a rail brake system, as a backup to the main backup emergency brakes on each bull-wheel. Another added safety feature is an independent evacuation motor to move the cars should the main motor fail for any reason.</p><br>
<h2>Reopening and temporary closing</h2><br>
<p>Angels Flight reopened to the public for riding on March 15, 2010. The local media covered the event with positive interest. Only a month after re-opening, Angels Flight had had over 59,000 riders. It connected the Historic Core and Broadway commercial district with the hilltop Bunker Hill California Plaza urban park and the Museum of Contemporary Art – MOCA. The cost of a one-way ride at that time was 50 cents, 25 cents with TAP card.</p><br>
<p>On June 10, 2011, the California Public Utilities Commission ordered Angels Flight to immediately cease operations due to wear on the steel wheels on the two cars. Inspectors determined that their fifteen-year-old wheels needed replacing. It reopened on July 5, 2011, after eight new custom-made steel wheels were installed on the two cars.</p><br>
<h2>2013 accident</h2><br>
<p>On September 5, 2013, one car derailed near the middle of the guideway. One passenger was on board the derailed car, and five passengers were on board the other car. There were no injuries. Passengers had to be rescued from the cars by firefighters. The brake safety system had been bypassed with a small tree branch.</p><br>
<p>The NTSB also noted a problem with the basic design: "The car body and the wheel-axle assembly are not articulated." The passing section of the track involves a short turning section which allows the cars to pass each other. The axles do not turn to follow the track, resulting in the wheel flanges grinding against the rail, causing excessive wheel wear. This problem, combined with safety system problems which caused unwanted track brake deployment, resulted in a derailment.</p><br>
<h2>Announced Reopening</h2><br>
<p>On March 1, 2017, it was announced by Los Angeles Mayor Eric Garcetti that Angels Flight could be working again by Labor Day 2017. The reopening will be made possible after safety upgrades are made to the doors of the cars and an evacuation walkway is added to the track. These enhancements will be made by ACS Infrastructure Development through an agreement with Angels Flight Railway Foundation in exchange for a share of the funicular’s revenue over the next three decades. At the time of the announcement, officials said that the cost of the repairs and value of the contract were confidential. Angel&#39;s Flight reopened for public service on August 31, 2017.</p><br>
<h2>In arts and popular culture</h2><br>
<h3>Art</h3><br>
<p>Angels Flight is the title of a famous 1931 oil painting by Millard Sheets that hangs as part of the permanent collection in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art. It shows two young women on the funiculars upper platform looking down on the nearby houses of Third Street, but the funicular cars themselves are out of the frame.</p><br>
<h3>Film and video</h3><br>
<p>Angels Flight debut on film was probably Good Night, Nurse! (1918), but it got its first real close-up in a 1920 one-reel comedy of errors, All Jazzed Up.</p><br>
<p>Angels Flight appears in the 1947 movie The Unfaithful. Actress Marta Mitrovich rides it from top to bottom at about the 24 minute mark of the movie.</p><br>
<p>Angels Flight is seen during a street chase scene in the 1948 film Hollow Triumph. Paul Henreid&#39;s character kicks the man chasing him off the back of the car as it ascends.</p><br>
<p>Angels Flight is featured in a 20-second sequence showing the two cars passing in the film Night Has a Thousand Eyes (1948).</p><br>
<p>Angels Flight is seen through the windows a couple of times during the planning scene in the noir film Criss Cross (1949).</p><br>
<p>In the 1951 remake of the classic Fritz Lang film, M, there is a scene in the opening credits shot from inside one of the Angel&#39;s Flight cars, of a man jumping in at the last minute as it starts to ascend. The scene continues to go on for several more moments as the car makes its way up the hill, and a man, who is presumably the child killer, looks out the back door at the nighttime traffic.</p><br>
<p>Angels Flight features in the 1952 crime thriller The Turning Point, with William Holden and Alexis Smith taking a ride up it to follow a lead.</p><br>
<p>Angel&#39;s Flight is seen in a 1953 TV episode of Boston Blackie called "Death Does a Rhumba".</p><br>
<p>In Cry of the Hunted (1953), Jory (Vittorio Gassman), a prisoner being transported, escapes and rides the Angels Flight to evade capture.</p><br>
<p>Angels Flight appears in The Glenn Miller Story (1954). Early in the film when Miller (James Stewart) visits a pawn shop on Clay Street, the adjacent Angels Flight is clearly visible.</p><br>
<p>Angels Flight appears in the 1955 film Kiss Me Deadly at about 55&#39;45", as Ralph Meeker (Mike Hammer) drives under it to park and visit one of the old Bunker Hill mansions which had been turned into a flophouse and in which a "person of interest" in his case resides.</p><br>
<p>Angels Flight appears in the 1956 film Indestructible Man at about 4000". Lon Chaney Jr. rides up to Olive Street and the Hillcrest Hotel. Marian Carr later rides down to Hill Street. In one scene, you can barely make out a sign showing the cost to ride Angels Flight is "ROUND TRIP OR TWO RIDES – 5 CENTS" and "30 RIDE BOOK – 50 CENTS".</p><br>
<p>The 1956 Kent Mackenzie short film Bunker Hill: A Tale of Urban Renewal features Angels Flight.</p><br>
<p>Angels Flight is seen several times in the 1961 Kent Mackenzie film The Exiles, which dramatizes the lives of several real Native Americans living on Bunker Hill in 1958 (when the film was shot). The DVD of The Exiles also includes the 1956 Kent Mackenzie short film Bunker Hill: A Tale of Urban Renewal and the 1969 short film, The Last Day of Angels Flight.</p><br>
<p>In 1963 the railway appeared in the cult trash horror classic The Incredibly Strange Creatures Who Stopped Living and Became Mixed-Up Zombies, where one of the characters walks up the hill alongside the tracks.</p><br>
<p>Angel&#39;s Flight is a low-budget 1965 film noir about a Bunker Hill serial killer, shot on and around Angels Flight in both the downtown and Bunker Hill neighborhoods.</p><br>
<p>There is a scene shot on the railway in They Came to Rob Las Vegas released in 1968.</p><br>
<p>The only color episode of the original Perry Mason TV series, the February 1966 episode "The Case of the Twice-Told Twist", has a brief scene in the opening act, where Perry Mason (Raymond Burr) and secretary Della Street (Barbara Hale) ride Angels Flight.</p><br>
<p>There is a brief shot of the Angels Flight in the introduction of the January 1969 Dragnet episode "Narcotics DR-21".</p><br>
<p>Edmund Penneys 15-minute documentary from 1969, Angels Flight Railway, features footage shot in 1965 and during the funiculars last days in 1969.</p><br>
<p>The Last Day of Angels Flight was a documentary filmed on the day the railway closed in March 1969.</p><br>
<p>On November 23, 2010, NBC&#39;s The Biggest Loser featured the ride in part of a challenge in which the contestants have to either walk the stairs for 5 points or take the train for 1 point. The winner, accumulating 100 points, won a 2011 Ford Edge.</p><br>
<p>Angels Flight is featured in The Muppets (2011) when Jason Segel&#39;s character sings the Academy Award-winning song "Man or Muppet".</p><br>
<p>The closed Angels Flight was operated for a single day to film Ryan Goslings and Emma Stones characters riding it in the 2016 film La La Land.</p><br>
<p>Angels Flight appears in the 2017 TV movie The Saint. The scene had Adam Rayner as Simon Templar and Enrique Murciano as FBI Inspector John Henry Fernack. Yes, the producers do not know that the FBI has only Special Agents, not Inspectors.</p><br>
<h3>Literature</h3><br>
<p>There are at least five novels titled Angels Flight or Angels Flight, all with scenes that take place on the funicular and use it as a symbol of some kind. The first novel was Angels Flight by Don Ryan, published in 1927. Angels Flight was both the name and locale of the 1999 Harry Bosch crime novel by Michael Connelly.</p><br>
<p>Raymond Chandler fictionally visited Angels Flight in the 1938 novella The King in Yellow and the 1942 novel The High Window. Marlowe visits the Bunker Hill area in The Little Sister as well.</p><br>
<p>In the 1967 Nick Carter spy novel The Red Guard, Carter takes the Angels Flight to reach his safe house located half a block from the upper station.</p><br>
<p>Angels Flight is illustrated and at the center of events in the 1965 childrens book Piccolo&#39;s Prank by Leo Politi.</p><br>
<h3>Music</h3><br>
<p>The City of Los Angeles commissioned conductor David Woodard to compose and perform a memorial suite, entitled "An Elegy for Two Angels," in honor of Leon Praport and the funicular itself. The work was first performed at the Hill Street entrance by the Los Angeles Chamber Group on March 15, 2001, during a civic ceremony in which the autograph score was awarded to Praport&#39;s widow Lola.</p><br>
<p>There are references to Angels Flight in the song "Strange Season" on Michael Penn&#39;s 1992 album Free-for-All, and the cover features images of the line and a ticket stating, "Good for one ride".</p><br>
<h3>Games</h3><br>
<p>In the game Tony Hawk&#39;s American Wasteland, Angels Flight is a gap where the player can grind up or down the rails, the gap being called "Angel Going Up!" or "Angel Going Down!"</p><br>
<p>The game L.A. Noire features Angels Flight as one of 30 landmarks across the city. It is the location of the Street Crime side mission, "Shoo-Shoo Bandits"</p><br>
<p>West Lake is a freshwater lake in Hangzhou, China. It is divided into five sections by three causeways. There are numerous temples, pagodas, gardens, and artificial islands within the lake.</p><br>
<p>West Lake has influenced poets and painters throughout Chinese history for its natural beauty and historic relics, and it has also been among the most important sources of inspiration for Chinese garden designers. It was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2011, described as having "influenced garden design in the rest of China as well as Japan and Korea over the centuries"</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>The earliest recorded name for West Lake was the "Wu Forest River" (武林水, Wǔlín Shuǐ). The Book of Hans "Geography Column" says, "Qiantang, affiliated to the western governor general. Wu Forest Mountain (Wǔlínshān) is the origin of the Wu Forest River. Running east into the sea, it covers 830 li" (roughly, 350 km). Other former names include the "Qian River", "Qiantang Lake", "Mingsheng Lake", "Jinniu Lake", "Shihan Lake", "Shang Lake", "Lianyan Lake", "Fangsheng Pond", "Xizi Lake", "Gaoshi Lake", "Xiling Lake", "Meiren Lake", "Xianzhe Lake", and "Mingyue Lake". But only two names were widely accepted in history and recorded in historical documents. One is "Qiantang Lake", due to the fact that Hangzhou was called "Qiantang" in ancient times. The other name is "West Lake", due to the lake being west of the city. The name "West Lake" first appeared in two poems of Bai Juyi, "Bestowed on guests as returning from West Lake in the evening and looking back to Gushan Temple" (西湖晚歸回望孤山寺贈諸客) and "On the returning boat to Hangzhou" (杭州回舫). Since the Northern Song dynasty, most poems and articles of scholars used the name "West Lake", while the name "Qiantang Lake" was gradually deprecated. "The request of dredging West Lake" written by Su Shi was the first time that "West Lake" appeared in an official document.</p><br>
<h3>Qin dynasty</h3><br>
<p>Over 2,000 years ago, West Lake was still a part of the Qiantang River. Due to soil sedimentation, the feet of Wu Mountain and Baoshi Mountains, the surrounding mountains on the northern and southern sides of the lake, gradually stretched to form shoal heads. Later, these sand spits slowly merged to into a bank, to which a lagoon emerged to the west; this was the old West Lake of the Qin and Han dynasties. "West Lake Dream Searching" (西湖夢尋), written by Zhang Dai, relates the story that Qin Shi Huang visited the area and moored his boat to a stone later developed into the Big Stone Buddhist Temple. The stone was located on Baoshi Mountain, north of the West Lake, and can still be seen.</p><br>
<h3>Sui dynasty</h3><br>
<p>The short-lived Sui dynasty is noted for the great engineering works which it accomplished during its brief existence. After AD 610, the Jiangnan Canal was opened and connected to the North Canal. Thus, five major rivers of China (the Hai, Yellow, Huai, Yangtze, and Qiantang) were all were connected: this facilitated transportation to and from Hangzhou and thus boosted the regional economy. Tourism in Hangzhou also started to boom.</p><br>
<h3>Tang dynasty</h3><br>
<p>In the Tang dynasty, West Lake had an area of roughly 10.8 square kilometers. The western and southern parts of the lake all extended to the foot of West Hill. The northeastern part stretched to Wulin Gate area. Pilgrims could take the boat to the hill-foot and walk up to the hill to worship. Due to the ongoing aggradation of the lake, together with the virtual lack of any hydraulic projects, in those days, the lake would flood after heavy rains and dry up during long droughts.</p><br>
<p>In September 781, Li Mi (李泌) was appointed governor of Hangzhou. In order to supply fresh water, he creatively induced the water into the city. He ordered six wells dug in populous areas like Qiantang Gate and Yongjin Gate, and set up a "shadow conduit" (underground clay and bamboo pipes) to introduce lake water into the city. The six wells have long vanished today. The only existing relic from that time is the Xiangguo Well, located west of Jinting Bridge on Jiefang Road. The other five wells were Xi Well (to west of Xiangguo Well), Fang Well (or Four-eyed Well), Jinniu Well (northwest of Xi Well), Baigui Well (west of Longxiang Bridge), and Xiaofang Well (or Six-eyed Well, inside Qiantang Gate, now Xiaoche Bridge area).</p><br>
<p>In the middle of the Zhenyuan era (785-804) in the Tang dynasty, poet and government official Bai Juyi was appointed governor of Hangzhou. Already an accomplished and famous poet, his deeds at Hangzhou made him a great governor. He realised that the farmland nearby depended on the water of West Lake, but due to the negligence of previous governors, the old dyke had collapsed, and the lake so dried out that the local farmers were suffering from severe drought. He ordered the construction of a stronger and taller dyke, with a dam to control the flow of water, providing water for irrigation and mitigating the drought problem. The livelihood of local people of Hangzhou improved over the following years. Bai Juyi used his leisure time to enjoy the beauty of West Lake, visiting the lake almost every day. He ordered the construction of a causeway to allow crossing part of the lake on foot, instead of requiring the services of a boat. A causeway, the Baisha Causeway, is now commonly referred to as Bai Causeway (白堤) in Bai Juyi&#39;s honour, but the original Bai Causeway no longer exists.</p><br>
<h3>Five Dynasties</h3><br>
<p>The most prominent eras in Hangzhous development history, the Wuyue Kingdom (907-960) and Southern Song dynasty, had great impacts on West Lake. The comprehensive development and fundamental layout of West Lake occurred in these two Dynasties. During Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, the Wuyue Kingdom made Hangzhou its capital. It facilitated the transportation to coastal regions, and promoted trading with foreign countries like Japan and Korea. In the meantime, successive rulers in the Wuyue Kingdom paid great tribute to Buddhism, and built a number of temples, pagodas, shrines and grottos around the lake area. They expanded Lingyin Temple, founded Zhaoqing Temple, Jingci Temple, Lian Temple, Liutong Temple and Taoguang Temple, and built Baochu Pagoda, Liuhe Pagoda, Leifeng Pagoda and White Pagoda. The area was thus acclaimed as "Buddhist Country". Lingyin Temple, Tianzhu Temple and the tide of Qiantang were the most famous scenic spots at that time. Due to the geological characteristics, earth deposited speedly in West Lake and dredging became a routine maintenance. Thus in AD 927, the king of Wuyue, Qian Liu, installed a lake-dredging army of 1,000 to mow grasses and deepen springs, and preserved the water body of the lake.</p><br>
<h3>Song dynasty(The Northern Song and The Southern Song)</h3><br>
<p>Over one hundred years later, in the beginning of the Song dynasty&#39;s Yuanyou era (1086–1094), another great poet, Su Shi (also known as Su Dongpo), came to Hangzhou to serve as its governor. At that time, the farmers suffered greatly drought again, due to overgrowth of the weeds at the bottom of the lake clogging the irrigation ducts. He ordered dredging of the lake and piled up all the mud into another causeway, in the style of Bai Causeway, but much wider and nearly three times as long: he also planted willow trees along its banks. This causeway was later named after him as the "Su Causeway". There are six bridges along the 2.6 km Su Causeway (蘇堤),and they are called seperately Yingbo(映波）,Suolan（锁澜）,Wangshan（望山）,Yadi（压堤）,Dongpu（东浦）,Kuahong（跨虹） Bridge,which all symbolize the characristics of the bridge itself and also expose the structural beauty and its colorful connotation. "Dawn on the Su Causeway in Spring 蘇堤春曉" is one of the attractions.</p><br>
<p>When the Southern Song dynasty made Hangzhou its capital in 1127, Hangzhou became the national center of politics, economy and culture,and its name was also changed into Linan. The population grew rapidly, and the economy developed greatly. Hangzhou entered its heyday. Wu Zimu described the extravagance in his "Mengliang lu" (Dreaming Over a Bowl of Millet) (夢粱錄), "The life in Linan is luxurious in all seasons, full of delight and appreciation with no idle days. In west there is a lovely lake with arresting scenes, and in east the river tides are spectacular. Both are miracles." Besides pilgrims, the tourists in Hangzhou included envoys of foreign countries, businessmen, monks and scholar candidates of the imperial examination. The beauty of West Lake started to gain wide reputation. In those days, boating on the lake was a popular entertainment. According to records, there were hundreds of boats in the West Lake. All were delicately built, with exquisite carving and decorations, and glided gracefully on the water. Poet Lin Sheng vividly described the ostentation in his poem "On a hotel wall in Lin&#39;an". In addition, poet Yang Wanli (楊萬里) also acclaimed the engaging scenery of West Lake in poem "Coming out of Jingci Temple at dawn to see Lin Zifang off",which greatly show how thriving this metropolis was at that time and how yearning it was for people at that time.</p><br>
<p>The renowned painter Muqi Fachang came here and refounded the abandoned monastery Liutong Temple in 1215.</p><br>
<h3>Yuan dynasty</h3><br>
<p>In the Yuan dynasty, West Lake was still socially thriving, with a population full of exuberance for singing and dancing. Volume 23 of the Book of Yuan says, in the 2nd year of the Zhida era (1309), "in Hangzhou, Jiang-Zhe area, during half a year there were more than 1,200 foreign visitors. Foreigners Sangwu and Baoheding brought lions, panthers, crows and falcons. They stayed for 27 days. People and animals ate meat of more than 1,300 jin." Increasing number of businessmen and travelers from countries of Turkestan and western Europe came to visit Hangzhou. The most famous among them was Venetian explorer Marco Polo, who complimented Hangzhou in his travel notes as "the most splendid heavenly city in the world". In the late Yuan dynasty, there were "Qiantang Ten Scenic Spots", in addition to the "West Lake Ten Scenic Spots" of the Southern Song dynasty; the existence of which expanded the scope of tourism. During the Zhiyuan era of the reign of Kublai Khan, the lake was dredged, and renamed "pond of freeing captive animals" (放生池). Some of the lake area was gradually enriched and became cultivated zones. In the late Yuan dynasty, West Lake lacked governmental attention, and plutocrats and noblemen enclosed water zones, so that the lake deteriorated into a desolate state with most of its area silting up and turning into swampland.</p><br>
<h3>Ming dynasty</h3><br>
<p>In the later Yuan Dynasty and beginning of the Ming Dynasty, people attributed the collapse of the Southern Song Dynasty to the West Lake, because the upper class and emperors indulge themselves into the melody and wine with the sceneries of the lake. Therefore, people and the governs didnt want to make it clean and thriving in case that this kind of thing happened again. But later in the Ming dynasty, Hangzhou began to restore its prosperity in the Xuande and Zhengtong eras (1426–1449). Then, the local government kept a close watch on West Lake. In the 16th year of the Hongzhi era (one source suggests it was the 3rd year of the Zhengde era) the then governor Yang Mengying (楊孟瑛), with the support of special envoy Ju Liang (車粱), obtained approval to dredge the lake, despite much resistance from local magnates. This project was funded by the Engineering Department. The West Lake Visit Guide (西湖游覽志) recorded, "The work commenced in February... It took 152 days, and 6,700,000 men at a cost of 23,607 silver taels, and the removal of 3,481 acres of illegal fields... Thus, West Lake was restored to its image in the Tang and Song dynasties." The dredging project extended the water surface from west of Su Causeway to Hongchun Bridge and Mao Jia Bu. The excavated silt was used to broaden Su Causeway, and also used to build a long causeway in western Inside Lake, called "Yanggong Causeway" (楊公堤).</p><br>
<p>Both in the Ming and Qing dynasties, West Lake was dredged several times. The silt dug up was heaped to form two islands in the lake, "Huxin Island" and "Xiao Ying Zhou".</p><br>
<p>In 1607, the governor of Qiantang County, Nie Xintang (聶心湯), constructed a circular causeway from south to west outside the Fangsheng Pond of the island "Xiao Ying Zhou", which resulted in a unique view of "Island in Lake, Lake in Island". In 1611, Yang Wanli subsequently built the outer bank, and the whole plot was realized by 1620. Outside the pond were erect three small stony pagodas, called "Three Ponds (or Pools) Mirroring the Moon" (三潭印月 or Sān tán yìn yuè), which often give also their name to the Xiao Ying island.</p><br>
<h3>Qing Dynasty</h3><br>
<p>The Kangxi and Qianlong emperors of the Qing dynasty toured South China and stopping by Hangzhou many times; which helped to expedite the revamping and rehabilitation of West Lake. The Kangxi Emperor visited Hangzhou five times, and wrote the names of "Ten Scenic Spots of West Lake" selected in the Southern Song dynasty. The local governor then inscribed the emperor&#39;s handwriting onto stelae and built pavilions over them. Thereafter those scenes such as "Two Peaks Piercing the Clouds" and "Moon over the Peaceful Lake in Autumn" acquired fixed locations for appreciation. During the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor, "Eighteen Scenic Sites of West Lake" had developed into a new nomenclature together with enriched tourism resources. The Qianlong Emperor visited Hangzhou six times, composing poems as well as erecting stelae for the "Ten Scenic Spots". He also wrote names for "Eight Scenic Spots of Dragon Well", bringing renown to the mountainous scenery of remote the Dragon Well region (Longjing). In the Qianlong era, two Hangzhou natives, brothers Qu Hao and Qu Han, co-authored a book called "A Glance at Lakes and Hills", recording as many as 1,016 tourist spots around West Lake. This is the earliest known travel guide in Hangzhou.</p><br>
<p>During the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor, West Lake still preserved a water area of 7.54 square kilometers, but more than 20 acre were shoals. Due to extensive dredging projects, the lake area spread beyond the west of now Xishan Road to the neighborhood of Hongchun Bridge, Maojia Bu, Turtle Pond, and Chishan Bu. In the fifth year of the Yongzheng era, the governor of Zhejiang and Right Vice Director of the Court of Censors, Li Wei, spent 42,742 silver taels to dredge the lake. He built stone weirs in Jinsha Harbor, Chishan Bu, Jingjia Hill and Maojia Bu in order to store water and to flush out the lake silt. In 1800, Yan Jian (顏檢), the governor of Zhejiang, beseeched the imperial court to support a hydraulic project in West Lake. The project was supervised by the governor of Zhejiang, Ruan Yuan, who had the excavated silt piled into a mound, which was then named "Ruan Gong Dun" (阮公墩; "Lord Ruan&#39;s Pier"). By then, the modern configuration of West Lake was determined. In 1864, the West Lake Dredging Bureau was founded, and a Qiantang native, Ding Bin, was appointed as director.</p><br>
<h3>Republican era to the end of the 20th century</h3><br>
<p>From the end of the Qing dynasty to the Republican era, the Shanghai-Hangzhou-Ningbo and the Zhejiang-Jiangxi railways as well as the Hangzhou-Shanghai, Hangzhou-Nanjing, and Hangzhou-Ningbo highways were built. This facilitation of transportation encouraged the development of Hangzhou&#39;s tourism industry. Besides traditional pilgrims, more and more travelers came from domestic cities like Shanghai and Nanjing as well as from Europe, the United States and Japan. "The special memorial edition of Hangzhou government 10th anniversary" says, from 1930–1936, the recorded tourists to Hangzhou were counted to 32,845.</p><br>
<p>Hangzhous tourism resources became more abundant in the Republican era, as scenic spots and cultural relics were steadily added around West Lake. The government converted the imperial garden of the imperial palace remaining from the Qing dynasty into a park, on Solitary Hill. In 1927, the park was renamed "Zhongshan Park" or "Sun Yat-sen Park". On the left side of the park, the Zhejiang Martyrs Memorial was built, honoring those deceased when the Zhejiang army captured Jinling. In addition, tombs for Xu Xilin and Qiu Jin were constructed near Xiling Bridge. In 1917, the Dabei Pavilion in Lingyin Temple was erected, and the Yue Wang Temple and Yue Fei&#39;s tomb were renovated several times. From 1923–1931, the Huanglong Dong was built. From 1923–1924, the deserted Qian King Temple was renovated and converted to a garden. In 1933, the leaning Baochu Pagoda was revamped.</p><br>
<p>The construction of parks in Hangzhou started with Lakeside Park in the Republican era. In 1912, the military government of Zhejiang demolished the city walls from Qiantang Gate to Yongjin Gate as well as the fortress of banners, and built Hubing Rd along the lakeside. Hurdles were put up 20 meters from the lake and flowers and trees were planted. The area was called "Lakeside Park", covering around one Chinese mile and was divided into five parks, first to fifth. In the spring of 1930, the city government paved a land of around 21 mu with mud dredged out of the lake from north of Changsheng Rd to Qiantang Gate, and founded Sixth Park. From 1928-1933, Zhejiang&#39;s provincial government erected "Chen Yingshi Statue", "North Expedition Martyr Memorial Tower" and "Martyrs of 88 Division in Songhu Campaign Memorial Stela" at the piers of Third Park, Second Park and Fifth Park, respectively.</p><br>
<p>Due to continuous digging by stealth on its base, Leifeng Pagoda, after lasting nearly a thousand years, collapsed all of a sudden on September 25, 1924. It was shocking news in media. Lu Xun purposely wrote "Comment on the Collapse of Leifeng Pagoda" and "Second Comment on the Collapse of Leifeng Pagoda", making a remark on this incident. The fall of Leifeng Pagoda also put an end to one of "Ten Scenes of West Lake", "Leifeng Pagoda in the Sunset" 【雷峰夕照】.</p><br>
<p>From June 6 to October 20, 1929, the government of Zhejiang hosted the first "West Lake Expo", and total participants numbered over 20 million. The location of West Lake Expo was set at areas around the lakeside, such as Broken Bridge, Solitary Hill, Yue-Wang Temple, and North Hill. The primary purpose of the expo was to promote national products and encourage enterprises. Besides over 1,000 delegate groups from nationwide, involved included delegates from America, Japan, Britain, Indonesia and other countries. It was the largest and longest pageant in Hangzhou during the Republican era.</p><br>
<p>After the establishment of the People&#39;s Republic of China in 1949, Hangzhou was among the first places opened to tourism. The city government preserved the mountain area around the lake and planted a large number of trees. Meanwhile, West Lake was extensively dredged. Within West Lake scenery zone, a new botanical garden and flower garden was opened. Fish Viewing at the Flower Pond (花港觀魚) park, and Orioles Singing in the Willows (柳浪聞鶯) park were constructed. Fish Viewing at the Jade Springs and Yongjin Park were rebuilt. Lingyin Temple, Jingci Temple, Yue-Wang Temple, Three Ponds Mirroring the Moon (三潭印月), Lake-heart Pavilion and other spots were renovated. In addition, West Huanhu Rd (Xishan Rd), Longjin Rd and Jiuxi Rd were newly built. In 1959, West Lake of Hangzhou received over 1,400 foreign tourists, over 2,300 tourists from Hong Kong and Macao and over five million domestic visitors.</p><br>
<p>During the Cultural Revolution Liutong Temple and another temple were destroyed.</p><br>
<p>After the Cultural Revolution, the number of tourists to West Lake increased again. In 1978, it received 53,000 tourists from overseas and Hong Kong and Macao combined, in addition to about six million domestic travelers.</p><br>
<p>In May 1983, the state council named Hangzhou "Famed Historical and Cultural City" and "National Key Scenic Tourism City". In September 1984, the executive office of state council instructed that Hangzhou evolve to the tourism center of Southeast China and a first-class international scenic tourism city. Thereafter Hangzhou government refurbished Lingyin Temple, Tianzhu Temple, Jingci Temple, Yue-Wang Temple, Dacheng Hall, stela pavilions of "Ten Scenes" and other relics. Resorts such as Galloping Tiger Spring were expanded. Curved Yard and Lotus Pool in Summer (曲院風荷) park was founded. New spot "Exploring Plum Blossoms at Ling Peak" (靈峰探梅) was opened. Archaizing carnivals were held in Huanglong Dong and Ruangong Dun. There were also night gardens and music night markets for amusement.</p><br>
<p>In 1949, West Lake silted up, with average depth of merely 0.55 meters and capacity only 4 million cubic meters. Marshy weeds blanketed the lake bed so that large boat could only make their ways through specific channels. In 1950, the government listed West Lake dredging as a national investment project. Hangzhou launched the West Lake Dredging Project in 1951 to excavate the silt thoroughly. By 1954, all the work had been mechanized. The project concluded in 1959. As a result, the achieved average depth was 1.808 meters with nadir of 2.6 meters. The capacity elevated to 10,271,900 cubic meters. The silt was used to fill 18 ponds or lacunae in surrounding areas including Zhaoqing Temple and Qingbo Park. However, because of the erosion and sediment on lake bed afterward, the depth of the water lessened to 1.47 meters. The government thus invested two million yuan in 1976 to dredge the lake again. By 1980, the depth increased to 1.5 meters. Besides dredging work, the city government substantially fortified the lake shore, resulting in a bank of total length of 29,800 meters. That was the largest bank enhancement project in the history of West Lake. Along with the project, more than 10 piers for mooring the boats were renovated or newly built in Lakeside Park, Zhongshan Park, Yue Fei&#39;s tomb and both sides of Su Causeway.</p><br>
<p>The West Lake Diversion Project was inaugurated on 1 February 1985. The project built a pump at Zhakou section of Qiantang River, and drew 300,000 cubic meters of water daily, equivalent to one thirty-third of total capacity of the lake. As a consequence, the lake&#39;s water body transparency was increased by 5 to 7 cm. Other the other hand, The lake-wide sewage interception project was launched in 1978, and was finished in 1981. It was divided into three branches, southern, western and northern, buried sewage tunnels of over 17 kilometers, and was equipped with 10 pumping stations.</p><br>
<p>In 1984, five organizations including Hangzhou Daily newspaper sponsored voting for the "New Ten Scenes in West Lake". The elected new scenes are Cloud-Sustained Path in a Bamboo Grove (雲棲竹徑), Misty Trees by Nine Streams (九溪煙樹 ), Dreams at Galloping Tiger Spring (虎跑夢泉), Yellow Dragon Cave Dressed in Green (黃龍吐翠 ), Sweet Osmanthus Rain at Manjuelong Village (滿隴桂雨), Clouds Scurrying over Jade Emperor Hill (玉皇飛雲), Inquiring about Tea at Dragon Well (龍井問茶), Precious Stone Hill Floating in Rosy Clouds (寶石流霞), Heavenly Wind over Wushan Hill (吳山天風), and Ruan&#39;s Mound Encircled by Greenness (阮墩環碧). While embracing both exquisite natural beauty and abundant cultural deposits, West Lake of Hangzhou was among the first "National Key Scenic Tourist Resorts" in 1982, and elected one of "Ten Chinese Scenic Sites" in 1985.</p><br>
<p>After 71 years, the West Lake Expo was launched in Xi Hu in 2000. The new exhibition was held from October 20 to November 10, attracting 1,400,000 tourists domestic and overseas. The tourism industry raked in 1.12 billion RMB. The Expo greatly enhanced the reputation of West Lake domestically and internationally. Thereafter the West Lake Expo was made a conventional annual celebration.</p><br>
<p>Images of the West Lake have appeared various times on Chinese currency. The picture of "Three Ponds Mirroring the Moon" was printed on the backs of both the foreign exchange certificate one yuan bill issued by the government in 1979 and the fifth version of RMB one yuan bill issued in 2004.</p><br>
<h3>Literary works</h3><br>
<p>Over the centuries, the beauty and culture of West Lake has attracted numerous literati, who left behind works of literature and poetry to describe the lake. For example, Dream in West Lake and The Enchiridion of Lake and Mountain recorded a lot about West Lake and ancient Hangzhou historic anecdotes. Poets such as Bai Juyi, Su Shi, Xu Zhimo and Hu Shih also wrote countless poems about West Lake. The Chinese legend Legend of the White Snake is also set in West Lake in Hangzhou and has been adapted into films and television series over the years.</p><br>
<h3>West Lake Southern Side Renovation Project</h3><br>
<p>Entering the 21st century, West Lake witnessed several environmental renovation projects. First of them was "West Lake Southern Side Renovation Project". From February to October 2002, Hangzhou government incorporated four large parks on the southern side of the lake, and these four parks have been free to public 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. On October 25, 2002, on the old site of the Leifeng Pagoda which collapsed 78 years ago, a new pagoda with height of 71.7 meters was erected.</p><br>
<h2>Geography</h2><br>
<p>About the formation of West Lake, there are few records in ancient documents. The "West Lake Sight-Seeing Record" (西湖游覽志) says, "West Lake is surrounded by mountains on three sides. Streams wander down the hills into the pond. Therere hundreds of springs underneath. Accumulated water forms the lake." (西湖三面環山，溪谷縷注，下有淵泉百道，潴而為湖。) Modern scholars studied topography, geology, sediment and hydrodynamics, and generally held that West Lake was a lagoon formed gradually from a gulf. In 1920, scientist Zhu Kezhen published "The Cause of Formation of West Lake in Hangzhou" (杭州西湖生成的原因) after examining the topography around the lake. He claimed, "West Lake originally was a little bay on left side of Qiantang River. Later the earth in the river sedimented and slowly corked the mouth of the bay, hence a lagoon formed." Zhu postulated, based on the calculation of the rate of sedimentation, that West Lake was formed about 12,000 years ago, when the lake would have been significantly larger than now; and, that the lakes water area had gradually shrunk, due to its being filled by sediments carried down from the creeks in the hills which surround it on three sides. West Lake would no longer exist today without all the dredging work done in the historical period. In 1924, geologist Zhang Hongzhao (章鴻釗) published "One Explanation of the Formation of West Lake". While supporting Zhu&#39;s arguments, he supplemented that the formation of West Lake started with tidal force building the lake bank. Later, the alterations of the beach helped to maintain the water level. These were two prerequisites to the formation of the lake.</p><br>
<h2>Ecology</h2><br>
<h3>Flora</h3><br>
<p>West Lake not only hosts abundant natural and cultural resources, it also possesses various plant resources. Around the year, all kinds of flowers and plants in West Lake and on surrounding mountains blossom alternatively, which enriches the landscape of plantation around the lake and also significantly improves the environmental quality of the city.</p><br>
<p>Peach Blossom: On the lake banks and Su and Bai Causeways a large number of willows and peach trees are planted. It is said one willow is accompanied by one peach tree. Other horticultural plants include magnolia, cherry, Confederate rose, etc. The blooming season of peach tree in Hangzhou usually ranges from end of February to middle of April.</p><br>
<p>Lotus: Some sites in Hangzhou were named after lotus, such as lotus pond (荷花池頭) and lotus lane (荷花塘弄). There is traditional food called "lotus cake". The fossil of lotus seeds was unearthed at Kuahuqiao site in Xiaoshan, which indicates at least before the Tang dynasty there was cultivated lotus. Yang Wanli of the Song dynasty wrote poem, "Lotus leaves grow to the sky with endless green, lotus blossoms bathed in the sunlight appear especially red. (接天蓮葉無窮碧，映日荷花别样紅), which brought high reputation to the lotus in West Lake. Nowadays, there are 14 lotus cultivation areas in the lake, totally 130 Chinese acres. Most are in "North Inside Lake" and "Yue Lake". According to statistics, West Lake lotus starts to bloom in early June, and reaches peak blossom time in late June. It can last till late August or early September.</p><br>
<p>Osmanthus: As the city flower, osmanthus is one of representative plants of Hangzhou. Poet Bai Juyi wrote "search osmanthus around the temple on hill in the middle of Autumn", indicating osmanthus had been cultivated as early as in the Tang dynasty. Osmanthus trees have been massively planted in parks around the lake, and the best-known locations to appreciate are "Sweet Osmanthus Rain at Manjuelong Village", one of "New Ten Scenes of West Lake", and Hangzhou Botanical Garden. Osmanthus can be divided into four major species, Thunbergii group(金桂), Latifolius Group (銀桂), Aurantiacus Group (丹桂) and Fragrans Division (四季桂). Among them, the Thunbergii and Latifolius are the best. Every year around mid-autumn, the sweet-scented osmanthus blossoming is a highlight of tourism in Hangzhou. In addition to its elegant looks, osmanthus is also edible. Thunbergii and Latifolius boast intensive sweet scent, and are natural ingredients for seasoning. Pickled osmanthus blossoms mixed with white sugar became a traditional food of Hangzhou, "Sweet Osmanthus" (糖桂花). West Lake Osmanthus blooming period commences from early September, lasting till early November.</p><br>
<p>Plum blossom: Lin Bu (林逋), a famous recluse in the Song dynasty, lived on Solitary Hill. His poem Little Plum Blossom of Hill Garden (山園小梅) became the best known poem praising the flower and enriched the cultural contributions of the plum blossoms of West Lake. The opening line of the poem says, "When everything has faded they alone shine forth, encroaching on the charms of smaller gardens" (眾芳搖落獨暄妍，占斷風情向小園). Ling Peak, Solitary Hill and West Creek have long been the three finest spots of plum blossom cherishing in Hangzhou. The flowering season is typically around the Spring Festival, from late January to middle February.</p><br>
<p>Tulip: The "Prince Bay Park" (太子灣公园) of Hangzhou imported almost all species of tulips from Netherlands in 1992, and held annual tulips exhibition ever since. It has become a new scenic spot on the lake bank. The normal tulips blossom season spans from middle of March to end of April.</p><br>
<h3>Fauna</h3><br>
<p>Because the city government has paid increasing attention to environmental protection, the ecological conditions in West Lake area have been gradually improved. Mallards, halcyons and koi carp are among the most frequently spotted animals in the lake. Squirrels loiter among the trees on the bank.</p><br>
<h2>Influences</h2><br>
<p>West Lake is said to be the incarnation of Xi Shi, one of the Four Beauties of ancient China. Since ancient times, West Lake was associated with a large number of romantic poets, profound philosophers, national heroes and heroines. West Lake was also the retreat for many Chinese writers of the past. The Northern Song Dynasty poet Lin Bu, shunning the life of being an official, lived in seclusion by West Lake for twenty years, and dedicated himself to the cultivation of peach and plum blossoms. The great Ming dynasty essayist Zhang Dai, wrote a number of essays about West Lake in Reminiscence and Dream of Tao&#39;an (陶庵夢憶), and a whole book: Search for West Lake in Dreams (西湖夢尋). West Lake has had a profound impact on Far Eastern landscape designs, and its features have often been imitated by other palaces and gardens, such as Kunming Lake at the Summer Palace in Beijing, the central ponds of the Kyu Shiba Rikyu Garden and Koishikawa Kōrakuen Garden in Tokyo, Japan, among others.</p><br>
<p>Due to its prominent historical and cultural status, West Lake was selected as a National Key Scenic Resort in 1982, one of Ten Scenic Resorts in 1985 and a national 5A tourist resort in 2006.</p><br>
<p>Along with its cultural importance, West Lake historically was also of value for local commercial fishermen. According to statistics from 1977, the lake had an annual fish yield of 1300 kg/hectare, quite a bit more than for some larger lakes (that is, East Lake of Wuhan had a yield of only 450 kg/ha).</p><br>
<h2>Attractions</h2><br>
<p>Other attractions include:</p><br>
<p>Yue Fei Temple (岳王庙), the tomb and memorial hall to Yue Fei(岳飞).</p><br>
<p>Lingyin Temple (灵隐寺), a Buddhist monastery and surrounding hills.</p><br>
<p>Long Jing tea farms (龙井茶园), an area renowned for the quality of Tea.</p><br>
<p>Jingci Temple （净慈寺）</p><br>
<p>Galloping Tiger Spring (虎跑梦泉), a spring famous for its mineral water</p><br>
<p>Tomb of Su Xiao Xiao (苏小小墓)</p><br>
<p>The West Lake Museum (located on the lake shore) is dedicated to the cultural heritage of the West Lake.</p><br>
<h2>Ten Scenes of West Lake</h2><br>
<p>Traditionally, there are ten best-known scenic spots on the West Lake, each remembered by a four-character epithet. Collectively, they are known as the "Ten Scenes of West Lake" (10 Scenic Spots in West Lake 西湖十景). Each is marked by a stele with an epithet written in the calligraphy of the Qianlong Emperor. They are:</p><br>
<p>Dawn on the Su Causeway in Spring (蘇堤春曉)</p><br>
<p>Curved Yard and Lotus Pool in Summer (曲院風荷)</p><br>
<p>Moon over the Peaceful Lake in Autumn (平湖秋月)</p><br>
<p>Remnant Snow on the Bridge in Winter (斷橋殘雪)</p><br>
<p>Leifeng Pagoda in the Sunset (雷峰夕照)</p><br>
<p>Two Peaks Piercing the Clouds (雙峰插雲)</p><br>
<p>Orioles Singing in the Willows (柳浪聞鶯)</p><br>
<p>Fish Viewing at the Flower Pond (花港觀魚)</p><br>
<p>Three Ponds Mirroring the Moon (三潭印月)</p><br>
<p>Evening Bell Ringing at the Nanping Hill (南屏晚鐘)</p><br>
<p>Rutland Water is Anglian Water&#39;s drinking water reservoir in the county of Rutland, England, to the east of the county town, Oakham. It was known as Empingham Reservoir during its construction and until its official opening in 1976. The centre of its dam is at British national grid reference. It provides a reserve supply of water in the driest and most densely populated quarter of the United Kingdom and is one of the largest artificial lakes in Europe. By surface area it is the largest reservoir in England, but by capacity it is exceeded by Kielder Water.</p><br>
<p>Set in 3,100 acre of countryside, it has a 23 mi perimeter track (17 mi excluding Hambleton Peninsula) for walking or cycling. Since the water is drawn upon when needed, the relative areas of land and water vary a little but the flatter parts of the lake margin are enclosed by banks so that the wetland nature reserve is maintained.</p><br>
<p>A 1,555 hectare area of lake and shore is a biological Site of Special Scientific Interest, a Special Protection Area under the European Union Directive on the Conservation of Wild Birds and Nature Conservation Review site. An area of 1,333 hectares is a Ramsar internationally important wetland site, and 393 hectares at the western end is managed by the Leicestershire and Rutland Wildlife Trust.</p><br>
<h2>Construction</h2><br>
<p>Its construction by damming the Gwash valley near Empingham was completed in 1975. It flooded six or seven square kilometres of the Gwash valley as well as the side valley at the head of which lies Oakham. Nether Hambleton and most of Middle Hambleton were demolished and their wells were plugged as part of the ground preparation. Their neighbouring village of Upper Hambleton survived, and now sits on the Hambleton Peninsula. The Gwash makes a net input to the lake but its flow downstream is maintained. Most of the stored water is extracted from the River Welland at, between Tinwell and Stamford and from the River Nene upstream from Peterborough, a city which is a major user of the water.</p><br>
<p>Because much of the valley is clay, material for the dam was extracted from pits dug within the area that would be subsequently flooded. The clay dam is 115 ft high, and around 1,300 yd long. At its base, it is up to 890 yd wide, and the finished structure has been landscaped to blend in with the environment, even when viewed from Empingham, the nearest village.</p><br>
<h2>Community</h2><br>
<p>Upper Hambleton and the remnant of Middle Hambleton, including the Old Hall, are now known simply as Hambleton and are to be found on a long peninsula in the middle of the lake; land which was formerly a ridge between the two valleys in which the lake now lies. The few houses of Normanton avoided flooding although its church did not. The lower part of the building was supported against water damage so that its upper part could be used to present the story of the construction of the reservoir to the public. Some funerary monuments from it can be seen at Edenham church, Lincolnshire.</p><br>
<h2>Recreation</h2><br>
<p>The reservoir is used not just for water storage, but is a popular sports centre – as well as water sports such as sailing visitors enjoy fishing, walking and cycling along a 25 mi perimeter track. A pleasure cruiser, the Rutland Belle, carries people around the lake. Birdwatching brings visitors from far afield. The former butterfly centre at Sykes Lane has been turned into Bugtopia – The Zoo.</p><br>
<h2>Wildlife</h2><br>
<p>Large areas of wetland (as well as several small woods) at the western end of the lake form a nature reserve, managed by Leicestershire and Rutland Wildlife Trust. The area is designated a Special Protection Area of international importance for its wintering populations of gadwall (some 4% of this species’ European population) and shoveller. It is home to the Anglian Water Bird Watching Centre. Every August, the centre is the venue for the British Birdwatching Fair. Other birds found here include lapwing, coot, goldeneye, tufted duck, pochard, teal, wigeon, cormorant, great crested grebe, little grebe and, most notably, osprey, which were re-introduced to the area during 1996, including one called "Mr Rutland".</p><br>
<p>The lake is stocked with brown trout and rainbow trout, but there is a large head of coarse fish populated by water pumped in from the River Welland and River Nene, species include roach, bream, pike, zander, perch, eel, wels catfish and carp.</p><br>
<h2>Visitor centres</h2><br>
<p>The Anglian Water Birdwatching Centre, located in Egleton, features a gift shop operated by the Leicestershire and Rutland Wildlife Trust and a shop selling binoculars and telescopes. The centre includes the Rutland Environmental Education Centre, exhibits, and windows overlooking the wetlands.</p><br>
<p>The Lyndon Visitor Centre is located on the reserve&#39;s south shore. There are exhibits, bird viewing windows, trails and hides.</p><br>
<p>The Tonga Trench is an oceanic trench located in the south-west Pacific Ocean. It is the deepest trench of the Southern Hemisphere and the second deepest on Earth. The fastest plate tectonic velocity on Earth occurs as the Pacific Plate is being subducted westward in the trench.</p><br>
<p>When the Apollo 13 mission was aborted in 1970 following an explosion in an oxygen tank, the radioisotope thermoelectric generator broke-up in the atmosphere and the heat source plunged in or near the Tonga Trench. Atmospheric and oceanic monitoring indicate no release of nuclear fuel has occurred.</p><br>
<h2>Horizon Deep</h2><br>
<p>The deepest point of the Tonga Trench, the Horizon Deep at 23.25833&deg;S latitude, 174.726667&deg;W longitude, is 10,800 +/- deep, making it the deepest point in the Southern Hemisphere and the second deepest on Earth after the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench. It is named for the research vessel Horizon of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, the crew of which found the deep in December 1952.</p><br>
<p>As one of the deepest hadal trenches, the sediments of the Horizon Deep harbours a community of roundworms. A 2016 study found that the abundance of individuals in this community is six times greater than it is at a site on the trench edge ( 6,250 m) near the deep and that the difference in biomass between these locations is even bigger. Species diversity, on the other hand, is twice as big on the trench slope, probably because of a small number of opportunistic species in the trench. Figures for abundance and biomass are similar for the deeps of the Mariana Trench but considerably lower in the Peru–Chile Trench.</p><br>
<h2>Geology</h2><br>
<h3>Tonga-Kermadec arc system</h3><br>
<p>The region between the Tonga trench and the Lau back-arc basin, the Tonga-Kermadec Ridge, moves independently from the Australian and Pacific plates and is subdivided into several small plates, the Tonga, Kermadec, and Niuafo&#39;ou plates. The Tonga Plate is facing the Tonga Trench.</p><br>
<p>The Tonga Trench-Arc system is an extension-dominated, non-accretionary convergent margin. The Pacific Plate is being subducted westward in the trench. The convergence rate has been estimated to 15 cm/yr but GPS measurements in the northern trench indicate a convergence rate of 24 cm/yr there.</p><br>
<p>This is the fastest plate velocity on Earth, a result is the earth&#39;s most active zone of mantle seismicity.</p><br>
<p>Subduction rates decreases southward along the Tonga-Kermadec Arc, from 24 cm/yr in the north to 6 cm/yr in the south and also becomes more oblique southward. The high rate in the Tonga Trench is largely due to a reduction in extension in the Lau Basin.</p><br>
<p>Crustal extension in the Miocene Lau-Colville Ridge began at 6 Ma which initiated the opening of the Lau Basin-Havre Trough. This extension has propagated southward since and has developed into a spreading centre in the Lau Basin in front of the Tonga Trench. New crust is thus produced in front of the Tonga-Kermadec trenches while old crust is consumed behind it in the Tonga Trench.</p><br>
<h4>Pacific slab avalanche</h4><br>
<p>While most of the large earthquakes occur at the contact zone between both tectonic plates, related to the friction during subduction, others are produced in the Pacific plate due to its bending.</p><br>
<p>The Pacific crust that descends into the trench is old, 100-140 Ma, and relatively cold and it can therefore store a lot of elastic energy. As it reaches deep into the mantle, more than 600 km, and encounters barriers, it is being contorted which produces deep mantle earthquakes.</p><br>
<p>500 km beneath the North Fiji Basin a detached segment of the subducted Australian Plate has collided with the subducted Pacific Plate which produces many large-scale earthquakes. The subducted Pacific Plate is also being deformed in the collision as both slabs settles on the 660 km discontinuity. This slab collision probably occurred 5–4 Ma when the Lau Basin started to open.</p><br>
<p>Oceanic trenches are important sites for the formation of what will become continental crust and for recycling of material back into the mantle. Along the Tonga Trench mantle-derived melts are transferred to the island arc systems, and abyssal oceanic sediments and fragments of oceanic crust are collected.</p><br>
<h3>Tonga Trench–Lau Basin transition</h3><br>
<p>The northern end of the Tonga Trench (at 15°10S) is probably linked to the Fiji Fracture Zone, trending east-west north of Fiji, but the trench ends in a complex transition from subduction to a strike-slip motion and seismicity patterns indicate a presence of a 100 km-broad transition zone rather than a simple transform fault. In or near this zone there is a ridge-ridge-ridge triple junction (15&deg;37&prime;S latitude, 174&deg;52&prime;W longitude), known as the King’s or Mangatolu Triple Junction (MTJ), characterised by deformation and recent and intense volcanism (see for example Home Reef). The Tofua volcanic arc on the northern Tonga Ridge extends to less than 40 km of the trenchs northern end.</p><br>
<p>Just north of the MTJ lies the south-north-trending Northeast Lau Spreading Centre (NELSC) which intercepts the northern end of the Tonga Trench and is one of three major spreading centres in the northern Lau Basin (together with the Futuna Spreading Centre and Northwest Lau Spreading Centre.) The maximum spreading rate in the NELSC is 94 mm/yr but spreading decreases to zero at either end of the spreading centre. The total spreading rate between the Tongan and Australian plates, however, is 157 mm/yr and additional microplates and/or deformations zones must thus exist. The NELSC probably receives magmatic contributions from the Samoa hotspot.</p><br>
<p>The NELSC has a morphology which is similar to those of slow-spreading ridges with many closely packed ridges and troughs reaches. Where it meets the trench a ridge-transform-transform boundary is developing between the Tonga Ridge, the Pacific Plate, and the Australian Plate.</p><br>
<p>North-east of the 60° bend in the Tonga Trench the Pacific seafloor is full of parallel lineations. These have been interpreted as remnants of an extinct, east-to-west-trending spreading centre on the Pacific Plate, much older than the Tonga Trench.</p><br>
<h3>Louisville Seamount Chain collision</h3><br>
<p>At its southern end ( 26°S) the Tonga Trench is colliding with the Louisville Seamount Chain, a chain of guyots and seamounts on the Pacific Plate roughly parallel to the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain in the northern pacific. The Louisville collision zone migrates southward at a rate of 18 cm/yr because of the difference in the oblique angel between the Louisville ridge relative the direction of convergence. In the eastern Lau Basin spreading centres are propagating southward at roughly the same rate. The collision zone also offsets the Tonga Trench to the north-west relative to the Kermadec Trench by 50 km.</p><br>
<p>The subducting Louisville Ridge has caused a significant amount of erosion on the outer edge of the southern Tonga fore-arc and has probably accelerated subsidence in the Tonga Trench, a process which makes the Tonga Trench the second deepest trench on Earth and considerably deeper than the Kermadec Trench.</p><br>
<p>The oldest and westernmost of the Louisville seamounts, the Osbourn Seamount, is sitting on the edge of the trench and its former flat top is currently tilting towards the trench.</p><br>
<p>West of the Osbourn Seamount a broad zone of faulted blocks shallows the trench by 3,000 m while the adjacent fore-arc is elevated by 300 m and covered by canyons.</p><br>
<p>The Louisville collision zone correlates with a zone of seismic quiescence along the Tonga-Kermadec Trench known as the "Louisville Gap". This gap in seismicity indicates that subducting seamounts inhibit or even prevent seismicity at subduction zones, perhaps by increasing intervals between earthquakes, but the mechanism behind this process is poorly understood.</p><br>
<p>Geochemical evidence suggests that the Louisville chain has been subducting under the Tonga-Kermadec Arc since 4 Ma. Seismic studies have identified a southward, along-arc mantle flow that indicate that Pacific mantle is being replaced by Indo-Australian mantle west of the Tonga trench.</p><br>
<h3>Osbourn Trough</h3><br>
<p>The Osbourn Trough, located at 25.5°S just north of the Louisville Ridge collision zone, is a 900 km-long extinct spreading ridge located midway between two large oceanic plateaux north and south of the Tonga Trench respectively: Manihiki 1,750 km to the north and Hikurangi 1,550 km to the south. These plateaux once formed part of the 100 e6km3 Ontong Java-Manihiki-Hikurangi large igneous province (LIP). Spreading between the plateaux ceased when Hikurangi collided with the Chatham Rise east of New Zealand at 86 Ma.</p><br>
<p>The western end of the Osbourn Trough is bounded by the Tonga Trench and its eastern by the Wishbone–East Manihiki Scarp. In between the Osbourn Trough is divided into three segments separated by dextral offsets. Near the Tonga Trench the bathymetry of these structures is affected by the bending of the Pacific Plate.</p><br>
<h3>Capricorn Seamount</h3><br>
<p>The Capricorn Seamount is a guyot located on the eastern wall of the northern Tonga Trench (see map above). It is a large guyot, 100 km wide at its base with a small part of its reefal or lagoonal summit reaching 440 m below sea level. The bending of the Pacific Plate at the Tonga Trench is currently slicing it like a loaf of bread: inside the guyot a north-south-trending horst and graben system is developing parallel to the trench; the western slope of the guyot has reached the 9,000 m-deep trench and has started to fill it; the summit of the guyot is tilted 1.7° towards the trench and its centre is only 45 km from the trench axis.</p><br>
<p>The Capricorn Seamount is expected to be completely consumed by the trench within 500,000 years.</p><br>
<p>Novarupta  is a volcano that was formed in 1912, located on the Alaska Peninsula in Katmai National Park and Preserve, about 290 mi southwest of Anchorage. Formed during the largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century, Novarupta released 30 times the volume of magma of the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.</p><br>
<h2>Eruption of 1912</h2><br>
<p>The eruption of Novarupta in the Aleutian Range began on June 6, 1912, and culminated in a series of violent eruptions. Rated a 6 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index,</p><br>
<p>the 60-hour-long eruption expelled 13 to 15 km3 of ash, 30 times as much as the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens.</p><br>
<p>The erupted magma of Rhyolite, Dacite, and Andesite resulted in more than 17 km3 of air fall tuff and approximately 11 km3 of pyroclastic ash-flow tuff.</p><br>
<p>During the 20th century, only the 1991 eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines was of a similar magnitude; Pinatubo ejected 11 km3 of tephra.</p><br>
<p>At least two larger eruptions occurred in the 19th century: the 1815 eruption of Tambora (150 km3 of tephra)</p><br>
<p>and the 1883 eruption of Indonesia&#39;s Krakatoa (20 km3</p><br>
<p>of tephra).</p><br>
<p>The Novarupta eruption occurred about 4 kilometers (2.5 mi) from the peak of Mount Katmai Volcano and 1,200 meters (4,000 ft) below the post-eruption Mount Katmai summit. During the eruption a large quantity of magma erupted from beneath the Mount Katmai area, resulting in the formation of a 2 km wide, funnel-shaped vent and the collapse of Mount Katmai&#39;s summit, creating a 600 m deep, 3 by caldera.</p><br>
<p>The eruption ended with the extrusion of a lava dome of rhyolite that plugged the vent. The 295 ft high and 1,180 ft wide dome it created forms what is now referred to as Novarupta.</p><br>
<p>Despite the magnitude of the eruption, no deaths directly resulted.</p><br>
<p>The eruption is said to have had an effect on the level of the Nile.</p><br>
<h2>Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes</h2><br>
<p>Pyroclastic ash flow from the eruption formed the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes, named by botanist Robert F. Griggs, who explored the volcano&#39;s aftermath for the National Geographic Society in 1916.</p><br>
<p>The eruption forming the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes is one of the few in recorded history to have produced welded tuff, producing numerous fumaroles that persisted for 15 years.</p><br>
<h2>Katmai National Park</h2><br>
<p>Established as a National Park & Preserve in 1980, Katmai is located on the Alaska Peninsula, across from Kodiak Island, with headquarters in nearby King Salmon, about 290 mi southwest of Anchorage. The area was originally designated a National Monument in 1918 to protect the area around the 1912 eruption of Novarupta and the 40 square miles, 100 to 700 ft deep, pyroclastic flow of the Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes.</p><br>
<p>Qumarkaj,   is an archaeological site in the southwest of the El Quiché department of Guatemala. Qumarkaj is also known as Utatlán, the Nahuatl translation of the citys name. The name comes from Kiche Qumarkah "Place of old reeds".</p><br>
<p>Qumarkaj was one of the most powerful Maya cities when the Spanish arrived in the region in the early 16th century. It was the capital of the Kiche Maya in the Late Postclassic Period. At the time of the Spanish Conquest, Qumarkaj was a relatively new capital, with the capital of the Kiche kingdom having originally been situated at Jakawitz (identified with the archaeological site Chitinamit) and then at Pismachi. Qumarkaj was founded during the reign of king Ququmatz ("Feathered Serpent" in Kiche) in the early 15th century, immediately to the north of Pismachi. In 1470 the city was seriously weakened by a rebellion among the nobility that resulted in the loss of key allies of the Kiche&#39;.</p><br>
<p>Archaeologically and ethnohistorically, Qumarkaj is the best known of the Late Postclassic highland Maya capitals. The earliest reference to the site in Spanish occurs in Hernán Cortés letters from Mexico. Although the site has been investigated, little reconstruction work has taken place. The surviving architecture, which includes a Mesoamerican ballcourt, temples and palaces, has been badly damaged by the looting of stone to build the nearby town of Santa Cruz del Quiché.</p><br>
<p>The major structures of Qumarkaj were laid out around a plaza. They included the temple of Tohil, a jaguar god who was patron of the city, the temple of Awilix, the patron goddess of one of the noble houses, the temple of Jakawitz, a mountain deity who was also a noble patron and the temple of Quq&#39;umatz, the Feathered Serpent, the patron of the royal house. The main ballcourt was placed between the palaces of two of the principal noble houses. Palaces, or nimja, were spread throughout the city. There was also a platform that was used for gladiatorial sacrifice.</p><br>
<p>The area of Greater Qumarkaj was divided into four major political division, one for each of the most important ruling lineages, and also encompassed a number of smaller satellites sites, including Chisalin, Pismachi, Atalaya and Pakaman. The site core is open to the public and includes basic infrastructure, including a small site museum.</p><br>
<h2>Etymology</h2><br>
<p>Qumarkaj comes from the Kiche Qumqaraqaj. the name Qumarkaaaj translates more precisely as "rotted reed houses" (qumar="rotten&quot ka&#39;aaj="house or shack built of cane and reeds"). It was translated as Tecpan Utatlan by the Nahuatl-speaking Tlaxcalan allies of the Spanish conquistadors, with Tecpan being added to distinguish the city as being a seat of rule, equivalent to the Tollan used in Mesoamerica in earlier times.</p><br>
<h2>Location</h2><br>
<p>The ruins of the city are 2.5 km to the west of the modern city of Santa Cruz del Quiché. Q&#39;umarkaj completely occupies 120,000 m&sup2; of an easily defended plateau surrounded by ravines over 100 m deep. The ravines are part of a drainage system feeding the Negro River, which flows into the Chixoy River and eventually into the Usumacinta River and the Gulf of Mexico. A natural causeway to the southeast of the site links the plateau with a wide plain to the east.</p><br>
<p>Qumarkaj is the largest in a group of five major sites tightly clustered in an area of 4 km&sup2, with the area between the sites showing signs of also having been heavily occupied. Atalaya and Pakaman lie to the east, Pismachi lies to the south and Chisalin is to the north.</p><br>
<h2>Inhabitants</h2><br>
<p>In the Late Postclassic, the greater Qumarkaj area is estimated to have had a population of around 15,000. The inhabitants of Qumarkaj were divided socially between the nobility and their vassals. Their vassals served as foot-soldiers and were subject to the laws laid out by the nobility, although they could receive military titles as a result of their battlefield prowess. The social divisions were deep seated and were equivalent to strictly observed castes. The merchants were a privileged class, although they had to make tributary payments to the nobility. In addition to these classes, the population included rural labourers and artisans. Slaves were also held and included both sentenced criminals and prisoners of war.</p><br>
<p>There were twenty-four important lineages, or nimja, Their duties included marriage negotiations and associated feasting and ceremonial lecturing. These lineages were strongly patrilineal and were grouped into four larger, more powerful nimja that chose the rulers of the city. At the time of the Conquest, the four ruling nimja were the Kaweq, the Nijaib, the Saqik and the Ajaw Kiche. The Kaweq and the Nijaib included nine principal lineages each, the Ajaw Kiche included four and the Saqik had two. As well as choosing the king and king elect, the ruling Kaweq dynasty also had a lineage that produced the powerful priests of Ququmatz, who may have served as stewards of the city.</p><br>
<p>The Kiche kingdom was ruled by a king, a king-elect and two captains, a four-way joint rule embodied in four leaders, one from each of the four most important lineages in the city of Qumarkaj. The Nijaib and the Saqik noble houses chose the qalel (supreme judge) and the Ajaw Kiche chose the atzij winaq (speaker).</p><br>
<h2>History</h2><br>
<p>Ceramic remains from the site include pieces that date as far back as the Preclassic Period but the majority of finds date to the Late Postclassic and the height of the Kiche kingdom.</p><br>
<h3>Founding and expansion</h3><br>
<p>The site was founded by king Ququmatz around 1400 for its defensive position, Ququmatz is Kiche for feathered serpent, and feathered serpent is used as a title in other parts of Mesoamerica. In the same title, his father is listed as Kotuja Ququmatz, and there is confusion in the Kiche documents as to whether they were one and the same, or father and son with very similar names.</p><br>
<p>Kotuja Ququmatz married Xlem, daughter of the king of the Tzutujils of Malaj, a precolumbian settlement near modern-day San Lucas Tolimán, on the shores of Lake Atitlán. Great magical powers were attributed to Ququmatz and he was said to be able to transform himself into a snake, an eagle, a jaguar and blood. Ququmatz had several children, one of whom (Kiqab) became king after him. Ququmatz was killed in battle against the K&#39;oja Maya.</p><br>
<p>Ququmatz greatly expanded the Kiche kingdom, first from Pismachi and later from Qumarkaj. At this time, the Kiches were closely allied with the Kaqchikels. Ququmatz sent his daughter to marry the lord of the Koja, a Maya people based in the Cuchumatan mountains, somewhere between Sacapulas and Huehuetenango. Instead of marrying her and submitting to the Kiche-Kaqchikel alliance, Tekum Sikom, the Koja king, killed the offered bride. This act initiated a war between the Kiche-Kaqchikel of Qumarkaj and the Koja. Ququmatz died in the resulting battle against the Koja.</p><br>
<p>With the death of his father in battle against the Koja, his son and heir Kiqab swore vengeance, and two years later he led the Kiche-Kaqchikel alliance against his enemies, together with the Ajpop Kamha (king-elect). The Kiche-led army entered Koja at first light, killed Tekum Sikom and captured his son. Kiqab recovered the bones of his father and returned to Qumarkaj with many prisoners and all the jade and metal that the Koja possessed, after conquering various settlements in the Sacapulas area, and the Mam people near Zaculeu.</p><br>
<p>Kiqab was said to have had magical powers like his father. However, he also suffered a humiliating rebellion that eventually resulted in the loss of his key Kaqchikel allies. Kiqab died around 1475.</p><br>
<h3>Internal strife</h3><br>
<p>In 1470 a rebellion shook Qumarkaj during a great celebration that saw a large gathering that included representatives of all the most important highland peoples. The rebels tried to kill Kiqab himself but he was defended by sons loyal to him in Pakaman, on the outskirts of the city. The newly empowered Kiche lords turned against their Kaqchikel allies, who were forced to flee Qumarkaj and found their own capital at Iximche.</p><br>
<p>After the death of king Kiqab in 1475 the Kiche were engaged in warfare against both the Tzutujils and the Kaqchikels, perhaps in an attempt to recover the former power of Qumarkaj. After this Q&#39;umarkaj never again directly challenged the Kaqchikels of Iximche.</p><br>
<p>Late in the history of Q&#39;umarkaj, the Nijaib appear to have been challenging the ruling Kaweq house for supremacy.</p><br>
<h3>Conquest and destruction</h3><br>
<p>In March 1524, the Spanish conquistador Pedro de Alvarado entered Qumarkaj when invited by the remaining lords of the Kiche, after he defeated the Kiche army in the Quetzaltenango valley, in a battle that had resulted in the death of Tecun Uman, one of the four lords of the city. Alvarado feared that a trap had been laid for him by the Kiche lords but entered the city anyway. The Kiche warriors, seeing their lords taken prisoner, attacked the Spaniards indigenous allies and managed to kill one of the Spanish soldiers. At this point Alvarado decided to have the captured Kiche lords burnt to death, he then proceeded to burn the entire city.</p><br>
<h3>Modern history</h3><br>
<p>The site was extensively documented in the colonial era. Francisco Ximénez, who first revealed the Kiche epic Popul Vuh to the world, visited Qumarkaj in the final years of the 17th century. Miguel Rivera y Maestre wrote a report of the site for the government of Guatemala in 1834. In 1840 John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood paid a brief visit to the site after reading Rivera y Maestres report, and Catherwood mapped the site and produced a drawing of the Temple of Tohil. In 1865, the French architect Cesar Daly mapped the five clustered sites that include Q&#39;umarkaj, although the maps have since been lost. A more detailed survey of the site was made by Alfred P. Maudslay in 1887, being published between 1889 and 1902. Archeological excavations were carried out in the 1950s and the 1970s.</p><br>
<p>Jorge F. Guillemín cleared the ruins in 1956, mapped the surviving structures, as well as mapping the central Kiche region and Qumarkajs satellite sites. The State University of New York at Albany spent three seasons excavating the ruins in the early 1970s. Kenneth Brown of the University of Houston started major excavations at Q&#39;umarkaj in 1977.</p><br>
<p>In 2003, the Proyecto Etnoarqueológico Q’um’arkaj ("Q&#39;umarkaj Ethnoarchaeological Project") has worked to reconstruct the history and socio-political organisation of the city through archaeological studies combined with ethnohistorical investigations.</p><br>
<p>The archaeological site is still used for traditional Maya ceremonies, and is one of the most popular destinations in Guatemala for this kind of ritual activity, especially at the solstices and for the New Year.</p><br>
<h2>Site description</h2><br>
<p>The site can be visited, although little restoration work has been done to it. Various temple pyramids, the remains of palaces (mostly reduced to mounds of rubble) and a court for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame can be seen in the site core. In the Greater Q&#39;umarkaj area there were four ballcourts, one in each of the four major political divisions of the city, testifying to the central role of the ballgame ritual in the sociopolitical organisation of the city.</p><br>
<p>Cut stone originally facing the buildings was taken to build the new buildings of Santa Cruz del Quiché; the ruins were still being mined for construction material through the late 19th century, doing extensive damage to the remains of the old buildings.</p><br>
<p>The major structures of Qumarkaj were laid out around a plaza, which had a plaster floor. The Kiche colonnaded buildings at Qumarkaj appear to indicate ties with the distant city of Mayapan in the Yucatan Peninsula. The parallels also include skull imagery, effigy figure censers, squatting figures and the generous application of stucco. A combined aerial and surface analysis of the ruins has revealed a strongly patterned arrangement with repeating combinations of pyramids, long structures and multipatio residential complexes. These repeating combinations appear to be linked to the different nimja lineages. In addition there appears to be a larger division of the site, separating it into northwestern and southwestern halves. The dividing line runs from the west along a street to the central plaza, crosses the ballcourt and the plaza, then separates the northern and eastern branches of the site up to the rim of the canyon on the eastern side. This larger site division places six nimja complexes in the northern half and six in the south, although this larger division may not have been strictly along lineage lines, since Kaweq-linked structures are found in both halves of the site. The Kaweq and their allies dominated most of the site, with the Nijaib occupying the eastern portion, possibly as far as the satellite site of Atalaya.</p><br>
<h3>Temple of Tohil</h3><br>
<p>The plaza was dominated by the Temple of Tohil, who was a jaguar deity associated with the sun and with rain and was the patron deity of Qumarkaj. This temple lies on the western side of the main plaza. Francisco Ximénez, writing at the end of the 17th century, described the temple as the tallest building in Qumarkaj.</p><br>
<p>The Temple of Tohil was used for human sacrifice, the bodies of the sacrificial victims were probably hurled down the front stairway before being decapitated and the heads places on a skull rack. This tzumpan was likely to have been located immediately to the southeast of the temple, in an area that is now buried under rubble fallen from the temple itself.</p><br>
<p>An image of a jaguar was found painted onto the stucco of the temple, an animal that was a nahual of the ruling Kaweq dynasty.</p><br>
<h3>Temple of Awilix</h3><br>
<p>The Temple of Awilix is on the east side of the plaza. This structure was apparently the second most important temple in Q&#39;umarkaj. A wide stairway climbed the west side of the temple, it was flanked on the lower level by two large talud-tablero panels. The exterior stonework of the building has been completely stripped away. The temple is similar in form to a temple mound on the west side of the first plaza in Iximche, the postclassic capital of the Kaqchikel Maya. There were four principal phases of construction and there is evidence that the temple had been repaired various times prior to the Conquest. The floor under the third phase of construction had been painted dark green. Archaeological investigations found fragments of incense burners underneath the first building phase.</p><br>
<h3>Temple of Jakawitz</h3><br>
<p>A large mound on the south side of the plaza was once the Temple of Jakawitz, a deity of the mountains and the patron of the Ajaw Kiche lineage. Like the other structures of Q&#39;umarkaj, all the stone facing has been robbed, leaving only a rubble and mud core. This structure was part of a complex that consisted of a patio enclosed by the temple on the northern side, a palace on the southern side and a long building on the east. The Jakawitz complex has not been investigated archaeologically. Drawings by Rivera y Maestre suggest that the temple was a narrow building with four or five terraces.</p><br>
<h3>Temple of Ququmatz</h3><br>
<p>The temple of Ququmatz was a circular temple of the feathered serpent, and a palace in honour of the Kawek lineage, the ruling dynasty of the city. It is located directly between the temples of Tohil and Awilix, slightly north of the central axis of the Tohil temple and slightly south of the axis of the Awilix temple. From the traces left in the plaza it is evident that the temple consisted of a circular wall measuring 6 m across, running around a circular platform, with a 1 m wide circular passage between the two. The whole structure probably once supported a roof and there were small stone platforms on the east and west sides of the temple, each about 1 m wide.</p><br>
<p>The priests of Ququmatz were drawn from an important lineage among the ruling Kaweq dynasty and this was likely to have been a source of power and prestige for the Kaweq. The temple of Ququmatz must have been completely dismantled very soon after the Spanish Conquest since it is not mentioned by any of the Colonial era visitors, and early drawings of the site show only vegetation where the temple once stood. The tradition of circular temples dedicated to the Feathered Serpent deity was an ancient one in the Mesoamerican cultural region.</p><br>
<h3>Ballcourt</h3><br>
<p>The Ballcourt lies close to, and just south of, the temple of Tohil, on the southwest side of the plaza. The ballcourt still retains its distinctive shape, although the structures have been robbed of their facing. The visible ballcourt was one of four in Qumarkaj and was administered by the Popol Winaq branch of the ruling Kaweq lineage. The ballcourt is aligned east-west with a length of 40 m. The ballcourt was located exactly between the palaces of the Kaweq and the Ajaw Kiche, which were located 15 m to the north and the south of the ballcourt. Correspondingly, the north range of the ballcourt appears to have been associated with the Kaweq lineage and the south range with the Ajaw Kiche&#39; lineage.</p><br>
<h3>Palaces</h3><br>
<p>A small palace belonging to the Nijaib lineage was located directly behind the temple of Awilix. These lineage houses, nimja, are found throughout the city of Q&#39;umarkaj. The nimja are long rectangular structures located beside the plazas upon 1 m high platforms. Upon these platforms, the palaces generally consisted of two levels, a lower roofed antechamber with a second, higher level supporting the main rooms of the structure. Some of the larger palaces had several stairways giving access to the antechamber, and multiple doors and pillars opening into the rooms of main building.</p><br>
<p>Another nimja palace structure lies to the southeast of the main plaza. Excavations in 1972 uncovered a simple superstructure consisting of a room with a bench at the back and an altar in the middle. Six funerary urns were found in the remains of the palace, one of which was found near the altar and contained rich offerings that included a gold necklace. There were traces of hearths at each extreme of the main chamber.</p><br>
<h3>Other structures</h3><br>
<p>In the central plaza there are traces of thirteen small platforms that once stood there. Three of these, each measuring 2.5 m wide, were located to the north of the Temple of K&#39;ucumatz. A line of five similar structures was also located to the south of the same temple, with an alternating pattern of a circular platform, then a square platform, followed by another circular platform and so on. There was a sixth small platform nearby, which was square in shape. These platforms appear to have served as altars.</p><br>
<p>To the south of the line of platforms are the traces of two larger square platforms. One of these measured 10 m on each side, the other measured 8 m per side.</p><br>
<p>A large square platform in the northwest section of the central plaza, measuring 18 m on each side, it is located immediately behind the Temple of Tohil and stands 2 m high. Although, typically for the site, the outer stonework has been robbed, there are the remains of six layers of plaster on the floor of the platforms upper surface. This platform has been identified as the sokibal, the platform of gladiators described in early sources. This platform seems to have been closely linked to the military lineages of the Kaweq, such as the Nima Rajpop Achij.</p><br>
<p>Two large platforms lie in the southeastern section of the main plaza, their use remains unknown.</p><br>
<h3>Caves</h3><br>
<p>In addition, a series of three caves tunnel straight into the limestone immediately to the north of the site. The first and most extensive cave is about 30 meters long with various altars carved into the rock inside. Some modern Quiché, although officially Roman Catholic, still burn candles and incense at the ruined temples. The caves may have represented Tulán Zuyuá, the "Place of Seven Caves" described in the Kiche origin legend recounted in the Popul Vuh.</p><br>
<h2>Satellite sites</h2><br>
<p>A number of other archaeological sites are included within the area of Greater Q&#39;umarkaj (usually referred to as Greater Utatlan).</p><br>
<h3>Chisalin</h3><br>
<p>Chisalin is alson known by the alternative names of Pilokab and Muqwitz Pilokab. Chisalin is located a few hundred meters north of Qumarkaj. The ruins are located on a narrow strip of land with an area of 110,000 sqm surrounded by steep ravines. On the northeast side the strip is connected to a plateau that forms a part of the plain to the east of Qumarkaj. Chisalin has a small, heavily eroded plaza, and the whole strip is occupied by ruins, with the exception of a small section.</p><br>
<h3>Pismachi'</h3><br>
<p>Pismachi (sometimes referred to as Ismachi) occupies a small plateau 600 m south of the site core and is surrounded by steep ravines. The plateau is separated from the Qumarkaj plateau by the ravine containing the Ismachi river. Pismachi was the Kiche capital before it was moved to nearby Qumarkaj, and was probably founded early in the 14th century. Its location was never forgotten by the local Kiches although it was from time to time lost by outside investigators. French missionary Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg located Pismachi in the middle of the 19th century, it was then lost until it was relocated in 1956 by Jorge Guillemín, working in collaboration with the government of Guatemala, the location was reconfirmed by Robert Carmack in 1969. Although the Pismachi plateau is twice the size of the Qumarkaj plateau, the ruins occupy a small area on the southeast portion of the hilltop. The ruins are still used for the rituals of modern Kiche&#39; shamans.</p><br>
<h3>Atalaya</h3><br>
<p>Atalaya (Spanish for "watchtower") is located at a distance of 600 m to the east of the site core. The site was built upon four terraces that dominated the approach to Qumarkaj, at the beginning of the eastern plain occupied by the modern town of Santa Cruz del Quiché. The site was very small, covering an area of 3,250 sqm. A paved avenue (or sacbe) is said by locals to have passed the tower, which was closely linked to the Nijaib lineage. Between Qumarkaj and Atalaya there was a place where criminals were punished. Atalaya is used for modern Kiche rituals and is the focus of local folklore, which relates that Tecún Umán is buried there and that it is haunted by tzitzimit spirits. Towards the end of the 20th century the majority of the land making up the site still belonged to the Rojas family, descendents of the kings of Q&#39;umarkaj.</p><br>
<h3>Pakaman</h3><br>
<p>Pakaman is located 1,000 m east of Atalaya and 1.6 km east of Qumarkaj. The same sakbe that passed the north side of Atalaya is said to pass south of Pakaman. The original name of Pakaman is likely to have been Panpetaq ("place of arrival") and was the first important outpost on the entry road to Qumarkaj.</p><br>
